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M 

AURY 

's   Geographical   Series. 

• 

MANUAL 

>■                 O  F 

• 

G 

K 

o 

G  R  A  P 

A 

H 

Y  : 

COMPLETE  TREATISE  ON   MATHEMATICAL 

,  CIVIL 

,  AND 

PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

By 

M.    F.    MAURY,     LL,D. 

Author  of  "  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,"  etc. 

> 

UNIVERSITY     PUBLISHING    COMPANY, 

NEW    YORK   AND    BALTIMORE. 

* 

1878. 

MAUEY'S 


GEOGRAPHICAL    SERIES. 

■    FIRST  LESSONS   IN   GEOGRAPHY, 

For  Young  Learners;  in  wliieh  the  Autlioi-,  in  an  imaginary  voyage  and  joni-nej,  takes  the  pnpil  \vnce 
round  the  world,  shows  him  various  parts  of  it,  and  easily  and  pleasantly  introduces  him  to  the  study  of 
Geography. 

THE   WORLD   WE   LIVE   IN: 

An  Intermediate  Geography;  in  which  the  Author  has  sought  to  present  the  leading  facts  and  principles 
of  Geographical  Science  in  a  familiar  and  attractive  manner,  with  constant  reference  to  the  maps,  and  with 
carefully   adapted   Questions,  Exercises,  and  Map   Studies. 

MANUAL   OF   GEOGRAPHY: 

A  complete  Treatise  on  Matliematical,  Civil,  and  Physical  Geogi-aphy ;  presented  in  an  attractive  manner, 
with   abundant   helps   and    adaptations   to   awaken  and   sustain   the   interest  of  the  pupil   in    intelligent   study. 

PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY: 

In  which  the  Natural  Features  of  the  Earth,  its  Atmospherical  Phenomena,  and  its  Animal  and  Vegetable 
Life,  are  fully  treated,  with  an  attractiveness  of  style  and  freshness  and  interest  of  detail  that  charm  the  j)upil 
and   the   general   reader.       Illustrated  with  mimcrons  maps  and   engravings. 

WALL   MAPS: 

With  new  and  original  features;  furnishing  invaluable  aid  in  teaching  Geography  in  classes,  and  comprising,  I.  The 
World.  II.  North  America.  III.  The  United  States.  IV.  South  America.  V.  Europe.  VL  Asia.  VII.  Africa. 
VIII.  Physical  and  Commercial  Chart  of  the  World. 


Entered     nccording     to     Act    of    Congress,    in     the    year    IS70.    hv 

M.    F.    MAURY. 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 
***  32:5. 


CI 


PREFACE. 


As  the  matured  fruit  of  the  author's  earnest  and  protracted  labors  this 
work  is  now  sent  forth,  an  humble  contribution  to  the  cause  of  geographical 
education. 

The  time  seems  fullj'  to  have  arrived  when  geography  demands  an  hon- 
orable place  among  her  sister  sciences.  Every  scholar  of  the  present  da}-  is 
aware  of  the  increased  and  increasing  need  of  geographical  te.xt-books  which, 
while  within  the  intellectual  grasp  of  young  pupils,  shall  be  fitted  to  ex- 
pand the  minds  of  those  more  advanced  in  tlieir  studies  ;  and  to  redeem  the 
most  delightful  of  subjects  from  tlie  bondage  of  dry  statistics,  on  the  one 
hand,  and,  on  the  other,  from  the  drudgery  of  vague  generalities. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  as  in  that  of  its  two  predecessors,  no 
pains  have  been  spared  to  lead  the  young  geographer  by  easy  and  gentle 
gradations  to  vantage-ground,   from  which   he  may  overlook   and  survey 
-nature  for  himself,  and  where  the  enchantments  of  the  prospect  will  con- 
strain him  to  pursue  his  geographical  inquiries  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm. 

"  The  study  of  physical  phenomena,"  to  borrow  tlie  words  of  Humboldt, 
"  finds  its  noblest  and  richest  reward  in  a  knowledge  of  the  chain  of  con- 
nection by  which  all  natural  forces  are  linked  together  and  made  mutually 
dependent  on  each  other ;  and  it  is  the  perception  of  these  relations  that 
exalts  our  views  and  ennobles  our  enjoyments."  While,  therefore,  the 
author  has  sought  to  reproduce  in  the  pupil's  mind  the  same  vivid  pictures 
of  the  various  pails  and  places  and  objects  of  the  globe  which,  as  an  eye- 
witness, he  himself  retains,  he  has  constantly  aimed  at  pointing  out  geo- 
graphical laws,  and  at  giving  the  learner  glimpses  into  the  terrestrial  machin- 
ery, and  frequent  foretastes  of  the  pleasures  that  await  his  after  researches. 

As  regards  the  success  which  lins  attended  tlie  author's  efforts  to  carry 
out  his  views,  in  these  pages,  tiie  public  must  now  judge. 

The  teacher  and  scholar,  however,  are  alike  requested  to  mark  the  follow- 
ing statements,  which  present  some  features  of  the  Manual  and  furnish  direc- 
tions for  its  most  efiective  use  in  the  class-room. 

(1.)  Map-Drawing  from  memory  is  felt  to  be  a  necessity  to  all  who  would 
know  the  surface  of  the  earth  as  illustrated  by  maps.  The  study  of  geog- 
raphy without  a  knowledge  of  the  map  is  mere  groping  in  the  dark. 

The  Treatise  on  Map-Drawing  here  given  is  so  simple  in  principle,  and 
so  easy  in  practice,  tliut  it  cannot  fail  to  commend  itself  to  both  teachers 
and  pupils.  Any  one,  however  inexperienced,  can  use  it,  and  pupils  should 
be  exercised  in  it  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  tiieir  course. 

A  uniform  projection  for  maps  is  as  desirable  for  schools  and  teachers  as 
is  a  uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures  for  business  men — a  con- 
summation  for  which  all  nations  are  striving. 

Universally,  at  sea,  the  Mercator  Projection  is  used  by  navigators. 
That  is  the  best  for  them.  Likewise  the  Rectangular  Tangential  Projec- 
tion is  the  best  for  the  land.  It  is  something  new,  and  it  is  here  presented 
for  the  first  lime,  it  is  believed,  in  an  American  geography.  The  impor- 
tance of  it  must  not  be  measured  by  the  space  allotted  to  it.  The  attention 
of  teachers  is  earnestly  invited  to  it. 

(2.)  To  avoid  blurring  the  maps  by  dark  shading  and  coloring  in  showing 
physical   elevations,  and   to   stimulate   the   pupil    in    getting    the    clearest 


ideas  of  the  principal  Mountain  Chains  and  River  Systems  of  the  world, 
special  maps  have  been  prepared  witliout  regard  to  labor  or  expense. 

These  designs  are  entirely  original,  new,  and  unique,  and  have  already 
been  greatly  admired  and  warmly  commended  by  old  and  skillful  teachers. 

The  various  degrees  of  light  and  shade  represent  the  elevations  and  de- 
pressions of  the  earth's  surlace  ;  the  darkest  shades  show  the  lowest  lands  and 
deepest  valleys,  and  the  lighter  tints  tlie  liigher  lands.  To  make  rivers  per- 
fectly distinguishable  and  traceable,  they  are  marked  in  the  darker  shade  by 
a  white  line,  and  in  the  lighter  shades  by  a  black  liue.  Such  representations 
of- the  earth's  surface  are  indispensable  in  a  school  geography  to  the  study  of 
other  maps. 

(3.)  To  give  greater  elevation  and  zest  to  the  study  of  the  text,  more  than 
thirty  Diagrams  have  been  introduced  explanatory  of  the  earth's  rotundity,  of 
its  revolution  in  its  orbit,  of  the  Stars  of  tlie  Northern  and  Southern  hemi- 
spheres, Isothermal  Lines,  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Trade  Winds,  the  Monsoons, 
the  Snow-line,  the  Barometer,  Tides,  Whirlwinds,  the  Size  of  Waves  off  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  differences  of  Time  on  different  meridians,  also  some 
specimens  of  animal  life  in  the  sea. 

Additional  illustrations,  drawn  from  life  itself  by  the  best  artists  of  Europe 
and  America,  have  been  judiciously  and  lavishly  inserted. 

(4.)  The  Alaps  and  the  Map  Studies  are  arranged  to  face  each  other, 
(o.)  The  Map  Studies  are  not  mere  questions  on  the  map,  but  are  among 
the  most  important  pages  of  the  book,  on  which  the  utmost  care  has  been 
bestowed.     To  give  them  greater  brightness  and  value,  much  pleasiug  matter, 
with  occasional  cuts  and  diagrams,  have  been  thrown  into  them. 

(G.)  Pronunciation  of  difficult  names  has  been  generally  given  where  they 
are  first  met  with  in  the  text ;  but  there  has  been  added  at  the  close  of  the 
book  a  carefully  compiled  and  judiciously  selected  Pronouncing  Vocabulary. 
(7.)  Full  Tables  of  Statistics  have  been  appended  to  this  work,  but  a 
large  number  of  striking  statistical  data  have  been  interwoven  with  the  text. 
The  population  and  area  of  the  different  countries  are  furnished  from  the  latest 
and  best  autliorilies. 

(8.)  The  questions  are  merely  suggestive,  but  to  keep  the  pupil  wide  awake 
to  all  he  has  previously  learned,  it  has  been  thought  not  unwise  to  ask  oc- 
casional questions,  especially  in  the  Map  Studies,  which  require  him  to  ex- 
amine other  maps  than  the  one  just  before  him,  and  to  draw  upon  t!ie  text. 

(9.)  The  text  has  been  broken  up  and  marked  by  numbers  and  side-head- 
ings for  convenience  of  reference. 

(10.)  A  valuable  Trade  and  Voyage  Chart,  exhibiting  the  great  routes  of 
commerce  and  their  distances,  the  Ocean-Telegraph  Cables,  both  finished  and 
contemplated,  the  Currents  of  the  Ocean  and  the  Winds  of  the  different 
Zones,  with  descriptive  text,  will  be  found  near  the  close  of  the  book. 

(11.)  Lastly,  the  resume  of  the  Most  Recent  Geographical  Events  and 
Discoveries  up  to  the  present  time,  by  which,  within  the  last  two  years,  a 
new  complexion  has  been  put  upon  the  geography  of  some  portions  of  the 
earth,  will  be  found  specially  interesting. 

M.  F.  MAURY. 
December,  1870. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  INTRODUCTORY. 

Lesson  Page 

I.  DEFINITIONS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS 5 

II.  DIURNAL  AND  ANNUAL  MOTIONS  OP  THE  EARTH 6 

m.  THE  AXIS  OF  THE  EARTH  AND  THE  SEASONS 7 

IV.  THE  EQUINOXES 8 

V.  STUDY  OF  THE  HEMISPHERICAL  MAPS 9 

VI.  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE 12 

VII.  NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY  14 

VIII.  DEFINITIONS  IN  NATURAL  GEOGRAPHY 15 

IX.  THE  LAND 15 

X.  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND   THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  RELI- 
GIONS IN  THE  WORLD l(i 

XL  GOVERN.MENTS is 

XII.  THE  INDUSTRIAL    PURSUITS  OP  MAN  AND  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  LABOR 18 

XIII.  THE  INFLUENCES  WHICH  REGULATE  THE   GEOGRAPHICAL   DIS- 

TRIBUTION OF  LABOR 1!) 

XIV.  STUDIES  ON  MERCATOR  S  MAP  OP  THE  WORLD 22 

XV.  ABOUT  CLIMATES ti 


II.  DESCRIPTION  OF  COUNTRIES. 


XVI. 

xvn. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

xxxn. 
xxxm. 

XXXIV. 
XXXV. 
XXXVI. 

xxx\^I. 

XXX\TII. 


OUR  OWN  COUNTRY— ITS  DISCOVERY  AND  SETTLEMENT 2i 

STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 27 

OUR  OWN  COUNTRY-(Continued) 2S 

GEOGRAPHICAL  POSITION  AND  FEATURES  OF  THE  NEW  WORLD.  28 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  GEOGR.\PHY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  31 

STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 31. 

THE  POLITICAL  SUBDIVISIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES ai 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES 35 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES— (Continued) 3H 

STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  NEW  ENGLAND 39 

THE  MIDDLE  STATES 39 

MORE  ABOUT  THE  MIDDLE  STATES 41 

STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  THE  MIDDLE  STATES 44 

THE  ELEVEN  SOUTHERN  STATES  AND  TWO  TERRITORIES *i 

THE  SOUTH JIRN  STATES— (Continued) 48 

THE  SOUTHERN  STATES— (Continued) 51 

STUDIES  ON  THE  MAPS  OP  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES  AND  TERRI- 
TORIES   56 

THE   WESTERN    STATES  AND  TERRITORIES— THEIR   GEOGRAPH- 
ICAL POSITION  AND  FE.\TURES 5S 

THE  WESTERN  STATES— (Continued) 59 

THE  WESTERN  STATES— (Continued) 62 

STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  THE  CENTRAL  OR  WESTERN  STATES 

AND  TERRITORIES 68 

THE  PACIFIC  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES 69 

THE  PACIFIC  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES— (ConUnued) 70 


Lesson                                                                                                                                   page 
XXXIX.  STUDIES   ON  THE  MAP  OP  THE   PACIFIC  STATES   AND  TERRI- 
TORIES     74 

XL,  BRITISH  AMERICA 74 

XLI.  THE  PROVINCES  OF  BRITISH  AMERICA 76 

XLII.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  BRITISH  AMERICA 82 

XLIU.  DANISH  AMERICA 82 

XLlV.  .MEXICO 84 

XLV.  THE  STATES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA 86 

XLVI.  THE  WEST  INDIES 87 

XLVII.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OP  MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  AND  THE 

WEST  INDIES Sit 

XLVIH.  SOUTH  AMERICA do 

XLIX.  EQUATORIAL  SOUTH  AMERICA 91 

L.  EQUATORIAL  SOUTH  AMERICA— (Continued) <M 

LI.  THE  ANDEAN  STATES  OP  SOUTH  AMERICA 95 

LII.  ST.\TES  OP  THE  LA  PLATA 100 

Llil.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 103 

LIV.  EUROPE. 104 

LV.  THE  UNITED  KINCJDOM  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND   ....     106 

LVI.  THE  UNITED  KIN(;DOM-(C(iiitimutil) 107 

LVII.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MM'  OK  THE  BRITISH   ISLES 109 

LVIII.  THE  UNITED   KINGDO.M-cC..iiliiiuea) 110 

I.IX.  FRANCE Ill 

LX.  AUSTRIA,  HUNGARY,  AND  EUROPEAN  TURKEY 112 

LXr.  GREECE  AND  ITALY,  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 114 

I.Xn.  GERMANY  AND  THE  SMALLER  ST.VIES 110 

LXIII.  SWITZERL.\ND,  NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN,  AND  DENMARK lis 

LXIV.  RUSSIA 121 

LXV.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  EUROPE 123 

LXVL  ASIA 127 

LXVII.  THE  ASIATIC  POWERS 128 

LX\TIL  JAPAN 129 

LXIX.  THE  EMPIRES  OF  ANAM  AND  BURMAH,  AND  THE  KINGDOM   OF 

SIAM 1.30 

LXX.  INDIA 131 

LXXI.  ARABIA.  PERSIA,  BELOOCHISTAN,  AFGHANISTAN,  AND  TURKES- 
TAN     134 

LXXn.  ASIATIC  TURKEY  AND  ASIATIC  RUSSIA 135 

LXXIII.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OP  ASIA 137 

LXXIV.  AFRICA 141 

LXXV.  COUNTRIES  OF  AFRICA 142 

LXXVT.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OP  AFRICA 145 

LXXVII.  AUSTRALIA 146 

LXXVIII.  THE  ISLANDS,  OR  OCEANIA 147 

LXXIX.  STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  OCEANIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 150 

LXXX.  THE  MOST  RECENT  GEOGRAPHICAL  EVENTS  AND  DISCOVERIES.  151 

PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 1.54 

GEOORAPIIICAL  STATISTICS 1.50 

MAP  DRAWING...  158 


MAPS.  OROGRAPHIC  VIEWS,  Etc. 


Page 

1.  Map  op  Western  Hemisphere 10 

2.  Map  op  Eastern  Hemisphere 11 

3.  Mercator's  Map  op  the  World  (Double) 20,  21 

4.  ISOTHEUMAL  LiNES 23 

5.  Map  op  North  America    26 

6.  Orographic  View  op  the  United  States .30 

7.  Map  op  the  United  States  (Double) 32,  33 

8.  Map  op  the  New  England  States 38 

9.  Map  op  the  Middle  States 45 

10.  Map  OP  THE  Southern  States  (EaPt  of  Mississippi  River) 55 

11.  Map  op  the  Southern  States  and  Territories  (West  of  Missispippi  River) 57 

12.  Map  op  the  Western  States  and  Territories 67 

13.  Map  op  the  Pacipic  States  and  Territories 73 


Page 

14.  Map  OP  Alaska  and  British  America  (Double) 80,  81 

15.  Map  op  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies 89 

16.  Orographic  View  op  the  Amazon  Vallbt 96 

17.  Map  op  South  America 102 

18.  Map  op  the  British  Isles  . .  108 

19.  Orographic  View  op  Central  Europe .•.  A 119 

20.  Map  op  Europe  (Double) 124,  125 

21.  Orographic  View  op  Central  Asia 133 

22.  Map  op  Asia  (Double) 138.  1.39 

23.  Map  op  Africa 144 

24.  Map  op  Australia  and  Oceania  (Double) 14H.  149 

25.  Trade  and  Voyage  Chart,  showing  Ocean  Cubrents,  Winds,  and  Tilkoraph- 

Cable  Lines  (Doubled 152,  153 


MAURY'S 


Manual  of  Geography, 


I.    I]>^TRODXJCTORY. 


LESSOM   I. 

Definitions   and  Descriptions. 

1.  Geoffraphy  is  divided  into  mathematical,  political, 
and  natural  or  physical  Geography. 

2.  3Iathefnatical  Geof/rap7itj  treats  of  the  shape 
and  size  of  the  earth,  the  determination  of  positions, 
and  the  measurements  of  distances  and  areas  on  its 
surface. 

3.  TJie  liotundity  of  the  ^ar^/i.— Philosophers 
suspected  that  the  earth  was  round,  because,  in  watch- 


8HIP    SAILINQ    TBOM    SHORE. 


ing  a  ship  departing  from  the  shores  of  any  country 
whatever,  they  had  observed  it  to  sink  gradually  below 
the  horizon  until,  tips  of  the  masts,  which  "^vere  the 
smallest,  but  the  tallest  parts  of  the  ship,  were  all  that 
could  be  seen.  Early  navigators  thought  the  earth  must 
be  round,  because,  whenever  they  came  in  sight  of  land, 


they  first  saw  the  tops  of  trees,  or  the  needle-like  sum- 
mits of  the  mountains,  while  yet  the  huge  dark  masses 
of  land  beneath  lay  concealed  from  view. 

In  1519,  Ferdinand  Magellan,  a  bold  sailor  of  Portu- 
gal, confirmed  these  conjectures  by  actually  sailing  round 
the  world. 

Astronomers,  finally,  established  them  by  remember- 
ing that  the  shadow  cast  by  the  earth,  when  it  comes 
between  the  sun  and  the  moon,  so  as  to  eclipse  the  moon, 
is  as  round  as  the  shadow  cast  upon  the  wall  by  an 
orange  ;  but,  though  the  shadow  of  the  earth  is  circular, 
and  its  form  spherical,  the  exact  shape  and  size  of  the 
earth  had  to  be  determined  by  laborious  calculation. 


JJ 


ECLIPSE    OP    THE    MOON. 


4.  Definitions. — The    Circumference  of  the  earth  is 
the  distance  around  it. 


DIURNAL    AND    ANNUAL    MOTIONS    OF    THE    EARTH. 


The  Diameter  of  a  circle 
is  the  distance  through 
its  centre,  from  one  point 
on  the  circumference  to 
the  point  opposite. 

An  Arc  is  any  part  of 
the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  as  a  rainbow. 

A  Meridian  circle  is 
one  passing  around  the 
earth  through  the  two 
poles. 

5.  The  Size  and  Shape  of  the  Earth. — From  meas- 
urements which  several  Grovernments  have  caused  to  be 
made  in  various  parts  of  the  world  as  to  the  length  of 
certain  arcs  of  a  meridian,  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
the  polar  diameter  of  the  earth  is  26?  miles  less  than 
its  equatorial  diameter — which  is  7,9251  miles  long — 
and  consequently  that  the  figure  of  the  earth  is  that  of 
an  ohlate  spheroid. 

An  "oblate  spheroid"  is  flattened  at  the  poles,  some- 
what as  an  orange  is  at  the  stem,  especially  if  it  be 
slightly  compressed  between  the  finger  and  thumb. 

6.  TJie  3Iean  Circiifnference  of  the  earth  is  ap- 
proximately and  for  convenience  usually  taken  to  be 
25,000  miles. 

7.  Area. — Mathematical  reckoning  also  tells  us  that 
the  surface  of  a  globe  of  such  dimensions  has  an  area 
of  about  197,000,000  square  miles. 

Of  this  area,  it  is  estimated  by  Geographers  that  about 
145,000,000  square  miles — or  three-fourths  of  the  whole 
area — are  water,  and  the  rest  (52,000,000  square  miles) 
land. 

Questions. — What  are  the  three  principal  brandies  of  Geography? — 
Wliat  is  Mathematical  Geography  ? — Why  did  philosophers  and  navigators 
suspect  the  earth  to  be  round  ? — How  did  Magellan  confirm  its  rotundity  ? — 
By  whom  and  how  was  this  proof  established  ? — What  is  the  diameter  of  a 
chcle ? — What  is  an  arc  of  a  ciicle  ?— What  is  a  Meridian  ? — Which  is  the 
longer,  the  Equatorial  or  the  Polar  diameter  of  the  earth? — What  then  is  the 
exact  shape  of  the  earth  ? — What  is  an  oblate  spheroid  ? — Can  you  calculate 
the  mean  circumference  of  the  earth  ? — The  diameter  of  a  circle  being  multi- 
plied by  3"/7 — gives  its  circumference  nearly — (exactly,  if  multiplied  by  3.141o9) ; 
can  you  tell  by  your  own  calculation  what  is  the  circumference  of  the  earth  at 
the  equator  ? — How  many  square  miles  does  the  surface  of  the  earth  contain  ? 
— How  much  of  this  is  supposed  to  be  land,  and  how  much  water? 


LESSOJV   II. 

Diurnal  and  Annual  Motions  of  the  Earth. 

1,  Daily  Rotation. — It  has  been  proved  by  obser- 
vations on  the  stars,  that  the  earth  has  a  diurnal  rota- 


tion from  West  to  East,  by  which  it  makes  a  complete 
revolution  on  its  axis  once  in  every  24  hours.  This 
period  of  time  is  called  a  day.  As  the  circumference 
of  the  earth  is  25,000  miles,  a  man  standing  on  or  near 
the  equator  will  be  moving  toward  the  East  at  the  rate 
of  about  one  thousand  miles  an  hour. 

If  an  observer  could  watch  our  globe  from  the  moon,  and  his  eye  first 
discern  North  and  South  America,  these  objects  would,  in  a  few  hours,  move 
out  of  sight ;  the  Pacific  Ocean  would  come  into  view  instead ;  then  the 
islands  of  Oceania,  successively  followed  by  Australia,  Asia,  Europe  and 
Africa,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and,  finally,  America  again. 

2,  Yearly  Hevolution. — In  addition  to  this  axial 
rotation,  the  earth  has  its  annual  revolution  round 
the  sun,  which  it  accomplishes  once  in  eveiy  365?  days, 
or,  more  accurately,  in  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes, 
and  50  seconds.  This  period  makes  a  year,  though  we 
call  365  days  a  j'ear,  and  correct  for  the  fraction  of  a 
day  (5  h.,  48  m.,  and  50  s.)  by  adding  another  day  every 
I'uurth  year  ;  this  makes  leap-year,  which  has  366  days. 

But  this  allowance  of  i  of  a  day,  or  6  houra,  for  every  year  is  too  much  by 
11  minutes  and  10  seconds;  to  correct  for  this,  so  that  the  seasons  may  return 
forever  at  the  same  time  of  the  year,  it  is  necessary  to  count  every  !53d  leap- 
year  as  a  common  year  of  365  days,  and,  by  skipping  the  one  day,  we  cause 
the  21st  of  March  and  the  22d  of  September  to  be  the  days  upon  which  tiie 
eciuinoxes  must  always  occur;  and  so,  for  all  time,  mid-summer  is  made  to 
fall  in  July,  and  mid-winter  in  January. 

^.  Eartlt's  Orbit. — The  path  of  the  earth  in  its 
annual  revolution  around  the  sun  is  called  its  Orbit. 
This  orbit  is  not  a  circle,  but  an  oblong  called  an 
ellipse,  and  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  it,  and  conse- 
(piently  from  us,  is  about  91,500,000  miles.  The  di- 
ameter of  a  circle  is  a  little  less  than  one-third  of  its 
circumference  :  by  doubling  91,500,000  of  miles  j'ou 
get  the  diameter  of  the  circle  that  the  earth  annually 
describes  in  its  orbit  around  the  sun.  Now  multiply 
this  by  3+,  then  make  the  calculation,  and  you  hud 
that  in  our  annual  journey  around  the  sun,  we  are 
travelling  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a  thousand  miles  a 
minute. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  in  its  annual  revolution 
causes  the  seasons,  and  its  diurnal  rotation  on  its  axis 
causes  day  and  night. 

4.  Day  and  Night. — The  sun  is  always  shining  on 
one  half  of  the  earth,  and  then  it  is  day  ;  while  the 
other  half,  being  turned  away  from  him,  is  in  its  own 
shadow — that  makes  it  dark,  and  then  it  is  night.  When 
the  sun  is  directly  overhead,  it  is  said  to  be  vertical. 
The  line  in  which  an  apple  would  fall  from  the  top  of  a 
tree  to  the  ground  is  called  a  perpendicular. 

The  phenomena  of  the  solstices,  the  equinoxes,  and 
the  seasons  are  also  easy  of  explanation.  You  will 
learn  about  them  in  the  next  lesson. 


THE  AXIS  OF  THE  EARTH  AND  THE  SEASONS. 


Quefstions. — How  many  motions  has  llie  earth  ? — What  is  its  diurnal 
rotation  V — How  long  does  it  take  to  make  a  complete  rotation  on  its  axis  ? — 
Is  this  rotation  from  East  to  West,  or  in  the  cimtraiy  direction  ? — Which 
motion  causes  day  and  night  ? — What  is  its  annual  motion  ? — How  long  does 
it  take  the  ea.-th  to  make  a  complete  revolution  around  the  sun  ? — How  do  we 
correct  lor  tlie  fraction  of  a  day  ? — How  much  is  it  ? — What  is  the  orbit  of 
the  earth  ? — What  is  the  shape  of  the  orbit  ?  (If  the  teacher  have  a  globe  in 
the  school-room,  he  should  use  it  to  illustrate  the  motions  which  cause  day 
and  night,  summer  and  winter,  etc.)  How  far  is  the  earth  from  the  sun  ?  Can 
you  tell  how  far  the  earth,  in  its  orbit  around  the  sun,  travels  in  a  minute  ? 
When  is  the  sun  vertical  ? — What  do  you  understand  by  a  perpendicular  line  ? 


LESS  OX  III. 

The  Axis  of  the  Earth  and  the  Seasons. 

1.  Axis. — The  earth,  in  its  diurnal  rotation,  turns 
upon  its  polar  or  shorter  diameter,  as  the  spinning-top 
turns  upon  its  own  axis.  This  polar  diameter  is  what 
is  meant  by  the  axis  of  the  earth. 

A  Plane,  in  mathematical  geography,  means  an  out- 
stretching le^l,  like  an  immense  floor  or  a  perfectly 
flat  meadow  of  boundless  extent. 

2.  The  Inclination  of  the  Earth's  Axis  to  its 
Orbit. — The  axis  of  the  earth  is  inclined  to  the  plane 
of  its  orbit,  as  the  axis  of  a  leaning  top  is  inclined  to 
the  floor. 

The  leaning  top  spins  round  on  its  axis,  and  travels 

round  some  point  on  the  floor  ; 
the  floor  is  the  plane  in  which  the 
top  revolves.  In  like  manner, 
the  earth  wheels  round  on  its 
axis  in  dii|rnal  rotation  in  the 
plane  of  its  orbit,  and  travels 
round  the  sun  in  that  |)lane  in 
annual  revolution.  Now  there 
is  this  difference  between  the 
earth  and  the  top  :  the  top  in- 
clines more  and  more  as  its  spin- 
ning slf^cks,  but  the  earth  never 
slacks  its  rate,  and  the  inclina- 
tion of  its  axis  to  this  plane  is 
always  the  same.  It  inclines  from  the  perpendicular  at 
the  constant  angle  of  23°  28'  ;  and  our  north  pole  con- 
stantly points  to  the  north  star. 

This  may  not  be  so  always.  If  all  things  continue  as  they  now  are 
12,000  years  longer,  a  bright  star  called  Vega,  in  the  constellation  known  as 
Lyra,  will  be  our  polar  star.  Theie  are  seven  stars  called  the  "  seven  point- 
ers" or  "  the  dipper,"  two  of  which  point  directly  toward  the  north  star. 
The  first  clear  night  look  toward  the  north,  and  see  if  you  can  find  "  the 
dipper,"  and  tell  the  north  star  by  it.  As  the  dipper  never  sets  in  this  coun- 
try, it  may  be  seen  any  clear  night. 

It  is  by  virtue  of  this  simple  contrivance  of  the  Divine 
Architect  in  inclining  the  earth's  axis,  that  the  year  is 


TE:/vfp 


the   inclination   of  the 
earth's  axis. 


DIPPEK    AND    NORTH     STAR. 


divided  into  seasons.  I 
told  you  that  the  cause  of 
the  seasons  was  as  simple 
in  explanation  as  day  and 
night,  and  here  you  have 
it  all  fully  exemplified  by 
the  leaning  top  as  it  spins 
about  the  floor. 

If  the  earth's  axis  were 
perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  its  orbit,  as  the  axis  of 
the  sleeping  top  is  to  the 

plane  of  the  floor,  the  days  and  nights  would  be  of  equal 
length  all  the  year  ;  neither  would  there  be  any  change 
of  seasons. 

Refer  to  the  diagram.  Lesson  lY.,  or  to  a  globe,  and 
you  will  understand  how  at  one  season  of  the  year  the 
north  pole  is  toward  the  sun,  and  at  another  season 
the  south  pole  ;  and  that,  therefore,  the  sun  in  his  an- 
nual round  appears  to  travel  from  north  to  south — being 
high  up  in  the  heavens  at  noon  in  summer,  and  low 
down  in  winter — whereas  the  sun  is  standing,  and  the 
earth  is  moving  under  him. 

3.  The  Troxncs  and  the  Solstices. — It  is  owing  to 
this  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  from  one  tropic  to  the 
other  and  back,  that  he  is  so  high  in  the  heavens  at 
noon  in  summer,  and  so  low  in  winter.  When  he 
reaches  the  highest  point  in  summer  and  the  lowest  in 
winter,  he  appears  to  stand  still,  for  he  gets  neither 
higher  nor  lower  at  noon  for  several  days.  One  of 
these  ''  stand- stiir'  places  is  called  the  summer  solstice, 
and  the  other  the  winter  solstice  [sun-stand). 

Thus  you  see  how  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around 
the  sun,  combined  with  the  inclination  of  its  axis,  causes 
the  seasons. 

At  the  summer  solstice  the  sun  at  noon  is  directlj' 
overhead  to  all  places  in  lat.  23°  28'  north.  Here  he 
appears  to  stop,  to  turn  back  and  begin  to  go  south 
again.     This  turning  place  is  on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 

Tropic  is  from  a  Greek  word  which  signifies  to  turn. 

The  Tropic  of  Cancer  is  a  circle  drawn  around  the 
earth  parallel  to  the  equator,  and  at  every  point  exactly 
23°  28'  distant  from  it. 

In  like  manner,  when  the  sun  reaches  the  winter 
solstice,  it  is  vertical  at  noon  to  all  places  in  lat. 
23°  28'  south  ;  and  a  circle  drawn  here  around  the 
earth  and  parallel  to  the  equator,  is  called  the  Tronic 
OF  Capricorn.  These  two  circles  are  46°  56'  (twice 
23°  28')  from  each  other. 


THE    EQUINOXES. 


The  sun  is  never  vertical  to  any  place  north  of  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  nor  to  any  place  south  of  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn. 

4.  OT/ie  Zones  or  Belts  of  the  Earth. — The  belt 
of  the  earth  between  these  two  parallels  of  latitude 
is  called  the  Torrid  Zone.  It  embraces  an  area  of 
about  78,000,000  sqr.  miles,  or  two-fifths  of  the  entire 
surface  of  the  earth.      TJiese  are  the  Inter-tropical  regions. 

The  sun  is  vertical  twice  a  year  to  all  places  within 
these  regions,  and  there  is  no  cold  weather  ;  it  is  sum- 
mer all  the  year  round  and  the  people  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
even  build  chimneys  to  their  houses. 

At  the  same  distance  from  each  pole,  viz. :  23°  28', 
there  are  two  other  circles  drawn  parallel  to  the  equator. 
The  one  about  the  north  pole  is  the  Arctic  Circle,  and 
the  one  about  the  south  pole  is  the  Antarctic  Circle. 

The  area  embraced  between  each  of  these  circles  and 
its  nearest  pole  measures  8,000,000  sqr.  miles. 

The  space  that  lies  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the 
north  pole  is  the  North  Frigid  Zone.  In  it  the  sum- 
mers are  short  and  cold,  and  the  winters  long,  dreary, 
and  severe,  and  as  5'ou  approach  the  pole  the  days 
become  longer  and  longer,  till  you  get  where  they  have 
but  one  day  and  one 
night  during  the  whole 
year,  each  being  six 
months  long. 

The  same  is  the  case 
with  the  South  Frigid 
Zone,  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Antarctic 
Circle  and  the  south 
pole. 

These  two  zones  to- 
gether contain  an  area 
ofupwardofl6,000,000 
sqr.  miles,  most  of  which 
has  never  been  trod  by 
human  foot,  or  seen  by 
the  eye  of  man.  Con- 
sequently we  do  not 
know    whether     these 

unexplored  re*gions  contain  most  land  or  most  water. 
But  we  do  know  that  when  the  sun  shines  at  one  pole, 
it  is  night  at  the  other. 

Questions— yVlxKi  is  the  axis  of  the  Earth  ?— What  is  a  Plane  ?— What  is 
the  inclination  of  the  earth  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  ?— Suppose  the  axis  of  the 
earth  were  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  what  effect  would  that  have 
upon  the  seasons,  and  the  length  of  day  and  night  ? — How  many  solstices  are 
tliere  ? — When  do  they  occur  ?— Wliat  do  you  mean  by  a  solstice  ?— What  are 


the  Tropics? — In  what  hemisphere  is  the  tropic  of  Cancer? — How  far  is  each 
Tropic  from  the  Equator  ? — How  far  from  each  other  ? — What  are  the  regions 
called  that  lie  between  the  tropics  ? — How  many  sqr.  miles  does  the  torrid  zone 
contain  ? — What  portion  is  this  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  ? — Is  the  cli- 
mate of  the  Inter-tropical  regions  all  winter  or  all  summer? — Describe  the 
Arctic  and  the  Antarctic  Circles.  Where  are  the  Frigid  Zones? — What  is 
their  area  ? — Describe  the  climates  there  and  the  length  of  the  days. 


LESSOM   IV. 

The  Equinoxes. 

1.  Tlie  Vernal  Equinox. — Owing  to  the  inclination 
of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  the  sun,  as 
you  have  been  told  already,  appears  to  move  up  and 
down  the  heavens  from  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the 
tropic  of  Cancer,  and  back,  once  a  year.  (See  Hemi- 
spheres, Less,  v.,  and  point  out  the  two  tropics.) 

Though  this  motion  is  only  apparent,  3^et  for  the  con- 
venience of  explanation  we  will  consider  it  as  real. 

In  consequence  of  this  inclination,  the  sun,  in  passing 
from  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
crosses  the  Equator  on  its  way  to  the  North.  This  hap- 
pens on  the  21st  of  March  every  year  ;  on  that  day  the 
sun  sets  at  the  south  pole  and  rises  at  the  north  pole. 


Autumnal 
Equinox 


ORBIT    OF    THE     EARTH. 


At  all  other  places  on  that  day  it  rises  and  sets  at  six 
o'clock,  consequently  the  day  and  night  are  then  equal : 
this  is  the  Vernal  Equinox. 

2.  The  Autnmnal  Equinox. — Six  months  afterward 
— on  the  22d  Sept. — as  the  sun  returns  from  the  tropic 
of  Cancer  to  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  it  again  cro.sses  the 
Equator,  when  it  sets  at  the  north,  and  rises  at  the  south 


ZONES.— STUDY    OF    MAPS. 


pole :  day  and  night  are  again  equal,  and  this  is 
called  the  Autumnal  Equinox. 

3.  Seasons. — Thus  the  year  is  divided  into 
seasons,  and  the  seasons  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
Equator  are  opposite  ;  that  is,  when  it  is  winter 
with  us  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  it  is  sum- 
mer with  the  people  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Equator,  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 


-2^; 


Hemisphere  means  /wZ/ sphere,  and  we  can  divide  the  earth 
into  Northern  and  Southern  halves,  as  well  as  into  Eastern  and 
'Westera. 

As  the  earth's  orbit  is  an  Ellipse,  the  earth  is  not  always  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  sun.  It  is  about  8,000,000  of  miles 
nearer  the  sun  in  winter  than  in  summer  ;  but,  in  winter,  tiie  North- 
ern half  of  the  planet  leans  fiirthest  away  from  the  sun,  and  also 
receives  his  rays  less  vertically  than  in  summer— hence  it  is  colder. 

4.  The  Teni2)erate  Zones. — The  region  em- 
braced between  the  tro|)ic  of  Cancer  and  the 
Arctic  Circle  is  called  the  North  Temperate 
Zone.  That  between  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  and 
the  Antarctic  Circle  is  the  South  Temperate 
Zone. 

The  North  Temperate  Zone  is  the  one  in  which 
we  live.     All  parts  of  the  United  States,  except  the 
northern  portion  of  Alaska,  lie  within  it;  and  in  it.  as 


SUN    AT    MIDNIGHT    IN    FBIOID    ZONE 


THE     n  E  M  I  S  Pn  B  R  E  S. 


you  know,  we  have  summer  and  winter  with  the  pleasing 
diversity  of  seasons. 

102,000,000  square  miles,  or  a  little  more  than  half 
the  earth's  surface,  is  contained  in  these  two  zones. 

,5.  Uie  Friffid  Zones, — When  the  sun,  in  his  appa- 
rent motion,  goes  south  of  the  Equator  after  the  22d  of 
September,  as  has  been  indicated,  darkness  settles  down 
upon  the  North  Frigid  Zone,  and  night  reigns  for  six 
months  with  uninterrupted  gloom. 

At  the  time  of  the  Vernal  Equinox,  when  the  season 
for  his  return  draws  near,  the  -cheerless  inhabitants  of 
these  icy  lands  anxiously  look  for  him,  and  are  said  to 
climb  mountains  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  his  earliest 
beams. 


When  he  rises  upon  them  in  the  spring,  it  is  also 
for  six  months,  during  which  time  they  have  no  night. 

These  circumstances  of  day  and  night,  occur  in  re- 
versed order  in  the  South  Frigid  Zone. 

Questions. — When  do  the  Equinoxes  occur? — In  what  month  is  the 
Vernal  and  in  what  the  Autumnal  Equinox  ? — How  long  are  the  days  then  ? 
Describe  the  season  in  the  Southern  hemisphere  when  it  is  winter  with  us. 
Where  are  the  Temperate  zones  ? — IIow  much  of  the  earth's  siuface  do  they 
contiiin? — In  what  zone  do  we  live,  and  iu  which  hemisphere? — Describe 
the  day  and  night  iu  the  Frigid  zones. 


LESSOJY    V. 

Study  of  the  Hemispherical  Maps. 

It  is  impossible  for  a  scholar  to  make  satisfactory 
progress  in  Geography  without  constant  reference  to 
maps.  Next  to  visiting  all  parts  of  the  earth  and  seeing 
the  objects  themselves,  the  best  thing  is  closely  to  in- 
spect pictures  or  drawings  which  represent  them.  In 
beginning  our  map-studies,  for  convenience,  we  divide 
our  globe  into  two  parts,  called  the  Western  and  East- 
ern Hemispheres.  When  Columbus  sailed  on  his  voy- 
age of  discovery,  as  you  have  already  learned,  he  sailed 
to  the  West,  and,  consequently,  the  new  country  he 
found  was  called  the  Western  World. 

Eastern  means  turned  toward  the  point  where  the 
sun  rises. 

Western,  turned  toward  the  point  where  the  sun  sets. 


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B}'  what  meridian  circle  have  we  here  divided  the  earth  into  hemispheres  ? 
Alls.  By  that  20"  west  of  Greenwich  (near  Loudon, Eng.  ;  seep.  108). — AVhat 
great  land-masses  do  you  find  in  the  western  hemisphere  ? — What  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere  ? — What  great  body  of  laud  lies  partly  in  each  hemisphere  ? 
— The  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  the  American  coasts  to  the  {)'Uh  meri- 
dian of  ea^l  longitude,  form  Oceania. — Which  is  tlie  largest  island  in  Oceania? 
In  which  hemisphere  is  Greenland? — In  which  is  Spitzbergen? — Victoria 
Land? — The  Unexplored  Rciiions? 

In  what  direction  does  North  America  lie  from  Europe  ?— From  Africa  ? 
— In  what  direction  is  China  ft'om  the  United  States  ? — In  what  is  Australia  ? 

What  grand  land-masses  lie   wholly  north   of  the   Equator? — What  are 


divided  by  that  geographical  line  into  two  parts  ? — What  immense  island 
lies  wholly  south  of  the  Equator  ? 

What  is  the  most  northerly  cape  of  Europe?— Which  is  the  most  .southerly 
cape  of  South  America  ? 

What  grand  divisions  of  Die  earth  are  intersected  by  tlie  Troi)ic  of  Cancer?— 
What,  by  tlie  Tropic  of  Capricorn?— Wiiat,  by  the  Arctic  Circle?— AViiere  does 
tills  circle  touch  Europe  ? — Are  there  any  large  bodies  of  land  intersected  by 
the  Antarctic  Circle  ?— Through  what  parts  of  the  world,  both  land  and  water 
divisions,  does  the  60tli  meridian  of  west  longitude  pass  ?— Through  and  near 
what  parts  does  the  loOth  meridian  pass  ?— Through  what  parts  does  the  90lh 
meridian  of  east  longitude  pass?— Tiirough  what  does  the  meridian  of  Green- 


Wich  i)af<a  ?  That  of  'WashiniTton  ? — Through  wlial  parts  of  the  world  does 
the  meridian  of  Tenerifle,  one  of  the  Canary  island^pass  ?, 

IIow  do  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans  conipafq  sts  to  shape  ?  Ayis.  The 
['acific  is  long  and  wide ;  the  Atlantic  is  so  very  rmrrow,  in  proportion  to  its 
length,  that  geographers  often  call  it  the  AUantic%Canal. — On  what  oceans 
wonld  you  sail  in  going  from  America,  in  a  southe'astwardly  course,  to  Aus- 
tralia, thence  to  California  ? — What  oceans  woaW  you  sail  on  in  a  voyage  from 
New  York  to  California,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn  ?— From  New  York  to  China, 
by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ?— From  Cape  Horn  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ? 

Name  the  polftica)  divisions  here  given  of  North  America.— Name  those 


of  South  America— Of  Europe— Of  Asia— Of  Oceania— Of  Africa— What 
l.'Uge  islands  lie  in  tlie  Pacific  Ocean  west  of  the  United  States  ? — What  islands 
1U>  west  of  the  coast  of  Africa  ? — What,  northeast  of  tiie  United  States  ? — 
Wliat,  southeast  of  the  United  States  ? — What  large  island  lies  east  of  Africa  ? 
—  What  large  island  north  of  Australia? — Where  is  New  Zealand? — Borneo? 
— Java? — Sumatra? — What  islands  together  form  a  great  Empire  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean?  Ans.  The  Japan  islands. — What  large  islands  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  are  begirt  with  ice?    Ans.  Nova  Zenibla  and  Spit zbergen. 

What  are  the  most  southerly  capes  of  Africa? — What,  the  most  easterly? 
— Wliat,  the  most  southerly  cape  of  India? — Where  is  Kerguelen's  Land? 
Falkland  Islands  ?— Isle  of  France  ?— Where  is  the  Strait  of  Sunda? 


12 


PARALLELS    AND    MERIDIANS. 


LEssoj^  ri. 

Latitude  and  Longitude. 

1.  TJie  Equator  is  a  circle  passing  from  West  to 
East  round  the  earth  midway  between  the  poles.  It 
divides  the  earth  into  two  equal  parts,  one  called  the 
Northern,  and  the  other  the  Southern  hemisphere. 

2.  Any  circle  that  divides  the  globe  into  two  equal 
parts,  is  called  a  Great  Circle,  All  meridians  are 
great  circles. 

3.  A  small  circle  is  any  circle  that  divides  a  sphere 
into  two  unequal  parts.  The  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Cap- 
ricorn and  all  parallels  of  latitude  are  small  circles. 

The  position  of  places  on  the  earth's  surface  is  desig- 
nated by  their  latitude  and  longitude.  Parallels  arc 
parallel  to  the  equator. 

The  ancients  supposed  the  earth  was  longer  from  East 
to  West  than  from  North  to  South. 

4.  The  Latitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance,  expressed 
in  degrees  (°-'-")  from  ihQ  Equator.  If  on  the  North 
side,  the  place  is  in  North  Latitude  ;  if  on  the  South 
side,  it  is  in  South  Latitude. 

The  pole  is  at  90°  of  latitude.  No  place  can  have 
more  than  90°  of  latitude,  because  no  place  can  be 
i'arther  from  the  Equator  than  the  pole.  Those  regions 
of  the  earth  lying  within  the  tropics  and  near  the 
Equator,  are  said  to  be  low  latitudes.  High  latitudes  are 
those  near  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles  and  the  poles. 


NORTH  POLE 


90 

SOUTH  POLE 
PARALLELS  AND  MERIDLANS. 


5.  Parallels  of  latitude  are  circles  that  pass  round  the 
earth,  parallel  to  the  Equator.  The  lines  that  pass  from 
left  to  right  across  every  map  are  parallels  of  latitude. 


Point  out  a  parallel  of  latitude  on  the  map,  Less.  V. 

6.  A  Prime  Meridian  is  any  meridian  from  which 
a  nation  may  choose  to  reckon  longitude. 

7.  TJie  Longitude  of  a  place  is  its  distance,  like- 
wise in  degrees,  from  the  Prime  Meridian.  If  the  place 
be  East  of  the  prime  meridian,  it  is  in  East  Longitude, 
and  if  on  the  other  side,  it  is  in  West  Longitude. 

Places  on  a  prime  meridian  have  no  longitude  whatever. 

8.  A  3IerkUan  is  a  great  circle  that  crosses  the 
Equator  at  right  angles  and  passes  through  the  poles. 
Those  lines  that  run  from  North  to  South  on  maps  are 
Meridians  of  Longitude. 

Point  out  meridians  of  longitude  on  the  map,  Less.  V. 

So  you  see  that  the  lines  on  the  map  that  run  from 
one  side  to  the  other  are  Parallels  of  Latitude,  those  that 
run  from  top  to  bottom  are  Meridians  of  Longitude. 

And  you  see,  moreover,  by  looking  at  the  map,  that 
all  meridians  cross  each  other  at  both  the  north  and  the 
south  pole,  each  of  which  is  90°  from  the  .Equator.  The 
distance  between  the  poles  is  therefore  180°. 

9.  negrees  of  Longitude. — As  all  the  meridians 
cross  at  the  polos,  and  diverge  or  spread  out  thence  till 
they  reach  the  Equator,  the  distance  between  any  two 
variTjs  with  the  latitude.  Therefore  a  dooroe  of  lon<n- 
tude  is  greater  at  the  Equator  than  it  is  anywhere  else. 

TABLE. 
English  miles  to  a  degree  of  Longitude  for  eveiy  5th  degree  of  Lalitnd' 
from  the  Ecjuator  to  the  Poles. 


Lat 

Miles. 

Lat 

Miles. 

Lat. 

Miles. 

0° 

69.19 

30° 

59.0 

60° 

34.5 

5° 

G8.7 

35^ 

56.7 

65° 

29.8 

10° 

07.9 

40° 

52.3 

70' 

23.6 

15° 

06.9 

45° 

48.9 

75' 

17.8 

20° 

65.0 

50° 

44.4 

80° 

11.9 

25° 

62.8 

55° 

39.3 

85° 

5.35 

At  90°,  or  the  Pole,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  Longitude. 

The  sun,  in  its  apparent  motion,  passes  over  15°  of 
longitude  every  hour,  whether  those  degrees  are  taken 
on  the  Equator  or  near  the  poles. 

As  all  parts  of  the  globe  move  together  from  West  to 
East,  toward  the  sun,  it  is  plain  that  a  short  degree  of 
longitude  near  the  pole,  since  it  moves  slowly,  will  oc- 
cupy as  much  time,  in  passing  under  the  sun,  as  a  long 
degree  will  require  for  its  passage. 

10.  Sea  Miles.— It  is  usual  to  reckon  the  length  of  a  degree  of  lonjri- 
tude  or  latitude  in  miles  of  60  to  a  degree  at  the  Equator.  These  are  called 
sea,  geographical,  or  nautical  miles.  All  nations  use  them  st  sea,  because 
their  use  facilitates  to  the  navigator  his  calculations.  Naulical  miles  are 
also  called  knot«,  because  the  marks  on  the  log  line,  by  which  the  speed  of 
ships  at  sea  is  measured,  consists  of  knots  spliced  into  the  line.  A  naulical 
or  geoyraphical  mile  is  longer  than  a  common  mile,  which  we  call  a  statute  i  r 


RECKONING    LONGITUDE. 


an  English  mile ;  for  while  there  are  (nearly)  69i  statute  miles  to  a  degree  of 
lonsitude  at  the  Equator,  there  are  only  60  nautical  miles. 

Distances  by  sea  and  the  length  of  telegraphic  cables  are  usually  expressed 
in  nautical  miles. 

11.  A  Marine  League  is  three  nautical  miles.  The 
jurisdiction  of  every  country  that  fronts  on  the  sea 
extends  out  to  the  distance  of  a  marine  league  from  the 
shore.  Vessels  of  nations  at  war  cannot  join  battle,  or 
commit  any  act  of  hostility,  within  that  distance  of  the 
shores  of  a  neutral  power.  This  distance  was  fixed 
upon,  by  the  common  consent  of  nations,  and  under  the 
idea  that  no  cannon  could- ever  send  a  ball  farther  than 
one  marine  league  from  the  shore  ;  and  that  every 
nation  has  the  exclusive  right  of  jurisdiction  over  as 
much  sea  as  guns  on  her  shores  could  command.  But 
the  rifle  cannon,  and  improved  ordnance  of  the  present 
day,  can  send  their  shot  much  farther .  than  three  miles. 
All  be3'ond  this  marine  league  is  what  iscalled  the  high 
seas,  whidi,  like  the  air,  is  free  to  all  the  world,  and  to 
which  no  nation,. however  powerful,  has  an  exclusive 
risrht,  any  more  than  the  farmer  has  to  the  common 
highway  which  passes  through  his  land. 

J2.  Itech-oninff  L'oiif/ifHde. — The  Prime  Meridian, 
we  have  seen,  is  any  meridian  from  which  a  nation  niay 
choose  to  reckon  longitude  The  Germans  reckon  lon- 
gitude from  the  meridian  of  Ferro,  the  most  westerly  of 
the  Canary  group  ;  the  French  from,  the  meridian  of  the 
Paris  Observatory;  the  English  from  Greenwich  {Grm'- 
itch);  the  Spaniards  from  Cadiz,  etc*  We  have  two  Prime 
Meridian.s — one  for  the  land,' the  other  for  the  water. 

AVe  reckon  longitude  at  sea  from  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich  ;  and  on  land  we  reckon  the  longitude  of  all 
places  in  the  United  States  from  the  meridian  of  Wash- 
ington. Washington  is  77°  west  of  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich. 

Most  of  the  charts  used  by  mariners  at  sea  are  constructed  at  the  Hydro- 
gniphical  Office  in  England,  and  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich.  For  the 
convenience  of  navigation,  therefore,  we  use  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  on 
all  our  charts. 

Here  is  the  convenience  and  advantage  of  u.sing  lati- 
tude and  longitude  and  maps  and  charts.  If  you  were 
to  say  you  had  met  a  person  on  the  railroad,  no  one 
could  tell  the  place  of  meeting  ;  but  if  you  were  to  say 
you  met  at  the  crossing  of  a  certain  other  road,  every 
one  would  know  the  exact  spot. 

So  it  is  with  the  geographer,  he  designates  the  posi- 
tion of  places  on  the  earth  by  the  crossing  of  parallels 
of  latitude  and  meridians  of  longitude  with  each  other. 
Thus,  if  you  were  told  that  a'  ship  was  spoken  at  sea,  in 
lit.  40°  north,  for  example,  nobody  could  point  out  the 
place  ;  but  if  you  were  told  she  was  spoken  lat.  40°  north 


MARINER  S  COMPASS. 


and  long.  30°  west,  you  would  understand  that  she  was 
spoken  at  the  very  spot  where  the  parallel  of  40°  north 
crosses  the  meridian  of  30°  west ;  and  you  would  then 
see  that  the  ship,  when  spoken,  was  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  near  the  Azores. 

Without  this  mode  of  marking  positions  on  the  chart, 
navigators  would  never  find  their  way  across  the  seas. 

13.  The  3Iariner's  Conijiass  helps  them  to  this. 

The  card  upon  which  the  courses 
are  written  is  attached  to  a  magnetic 
needle  below.  This  needle  points 
toward  the  north  and  south,  and  if  it 
varies  from  the  true  north — as  it  gen- 
erally does — the  amount  of  deviation 
can  always  be  determined,  cither  at 
sea  or  on  land,  by  astronomical  ob- 
servation. 

You  observe  that  the 
edge  of  this  card  toward 
the  top  of  the  page,  is 
marked  "North,"  that  tow- 
ard the  right  hand  of  it  is 

marked  "East,"  the  bottom  is  marked  "South,"  and 
the  left  hand  "  West." 

These  four  points — N.,  E.,  S.  and  W. —  arc  called  the 
Cardinal  Points. 

Seamen  divide  the  compass  into  32  points,  and  each 
point  into  halves  and  quarters.  Where  nicety  and 
accuracy  are  required,  the  compass  card  is  still  farther 
subdivided  into  degrees.  But  for  the  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  geography  the  i)oints  arc  sufficient.  They  are 
marked  on  the  compass,  and  to  tell  them  in  order,  begin- 
ning at  the  north  and  going  around  to  the  right ;  as,  N., 
NNF.,  NE.,  ENE.,  p].,  etc.,  etc.,  and  so  on  all  the  way 
round  to  the  north  again,  is  called  boxing  the  compass. 

Questions. — Turn  to  the  map  (Less.  V.)  and  point  out  the  Equator ;  the 
Tropics ;  tlie  Torrid  Zone ;  the  Temperate  Zones ;  the  Frigid  Zones.  Point 
out  Parallels  of  Latitude;  what  are  they?  Meridians  of  Longitude;  what 
are  they? — What  and  where  is  the  Equator? — Into  what  two  grand  divisions 
does  it  divide  the  earth? — What  is  a  small  circle? — Are  all  small  circles 
parallels  of  latitude? — What  small  circles  are  parallels  of  latitude ?^What 
latitude  has  the  pole  ? — How  do  you  designate  the  geographical  position  of 
places? — How  do  you  reckon  latitude? — What  is  a  Prime  Meridian? — How 
do  you  reckon  longitude  ? 

Are  degrees  of  longitude  of  an  invariable  length?— What  is  the  length  in 
nautical  miles  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  Equator  ? — Ditto  in  statute  miles  ? 
— Over  how  many  degrees  of  longitude  does  the  sun  pass  every  hour  ? — What 
do  mariners  mean  by  '■^ knots"  wlien  they  say  their  ship  is  going  so  many 
knots  an  hour  ? — Do  they  mean  statute  miles  or  sea  miles  ? — What  is  a  ma- 
rine league? — How  far  out  to  sea  does  the  jurisdiction  of  a  nation  extend 
from  her  shores? — Why  was  it  limited  to  this  distance? 

From  what  meridian  do  the  French  reckon  longitude  ? — From  what  the 
English  ? — From  what  meridian  do  we  reckon  longitude  ? — Why  do  we  use 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich  for  charts? — There  is  an  island  on  the  Equator  in 
long.  120°  E. :  can  you  find  it  on  the  map,  and  tell  what  island  it  is  ? — (Less. 
V.) — There  are  some  islands  and  a  sea  between  the  parallels  of  40'  N.  and 
the  Arctic  Circle,  and  in  long.  180'— What  are  they?— Can  you  ^ot  the  com- 
pass?— What  are  the  four  cardinal  points  ? 


H 


NATURAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


1.  Coiitiiiout. 

2.  Island. 

3.  Hill. 

4.  Isthmus. 


5.  Cape. 

6.  Promontory. 

7.  Moiintaiu. 

8.  Volcano. 


9.  I'eiiinsula. 
JO.  Shore. 

11.  Ocean. 

12.  Sea. 

21.  Table  Land. 


13.  Bay. 

14.  Strait. 

15.  Sound. 

16.  Chanuul. 


17     I    ikr 

IK.     IIIMI. 

HI.  Delia. 

20.  Archipelago. 


LESSOJV  VII. 

Natural  Geography. 

1.  JV^atural  Geofft^apJii/,  in  the  sense  here  meant, 
treats  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  its  natural  aspects. 

^.  Land  and  Water. — The  Almighty,  at  the  crea- 
tion,  made  of  the  earth  two  grand  divisions — land  and 
water.  For  convenience  the  geographer  has  subdivided 
the  water  into  sheets  of  various  forms  and  sizes,  which 
he  has  named  Oceans,  Seas,  Bays,  Gulfs,  Harbors, 
Lakes,  and  Rivers  ;  and  the  land  into  Continents, 
Islands,  Peninsulas,  Capes,  Mountains,  Valleys,  Des- 
erts and  Plains. 

These  are  all  usually  called  natural  divisions. 

3.  Florqb  and  Fauna. — The  surface  of  the  earth  is 


clothed  with  vegetation  and  animated  with  living  crea- 
tures :  these  are  its  Flora  and  its  Fauna. 

4.  Mines. — Its  crust  also  is  stored  with  coal  and 
marble,  copper,  iron,  the  ores  of  metals,  gold  and  ])re- 
cious  stones  :  these  are  called  minerals. 

It  belongs  to  natural  geography  to  treat  of  all  these, 
and  to  show  the  industries  connected  with  them,  as  well 
as  how  the  fauna  of  a  country  depend  upon  its  flora. 

This  dependence,  you  see,  is  obvious  ;  for  every  ani- 
mal, whether  it  be  insect,  bird,  or  beast,  requires  food 
that  is  suitable  to  it. 

Therefore,  a  country  that  produces  no  grass  can  have 
no  flocks  ;  and  lions  cannot  subsist  unless  they  have 
flocks  to  prey  upon.  Hence  lions  are  to  be  found  only 
in  grass  countries.      In  like  manner,  bees,   humming- 


r? 


MERCATORS    CHART    AND    WATER    DIVISIONS. 


l5 


birds,  and  flowers  go  together  ;  and  if  you  take  away 
the  flowers,  the  birds  and  the  insects  disappear. 

These  relations  and  dependencies  are  ver}-  interest- 
ing, and  it  is  the  business  of  the  geographer  to  study 
them  all. 

Questions.  — What  are  the  grand  natimil  divisions  of  the  eartli  ? — How 
is  the  water  divided  ? — How  the  land  ? — Can  you  point  out  on  the  map  (Les- 
son V.)  some  of  each  of  tliese  natural  divisions  ? — What  do  you  mean  by  the 
flora  of  a  country  ? — What  by  the  feuna? — What  by  the  minerals  ? — Can  you 
cite  cases  to  illustrate  .how  tjie  fauna  of  a  country  depend  upon  its  flora? 


LESSOJf    nil. 

Definitions  in  Natural  Geography. 

•/.  Jfercafoi'^s  C7iarf.— Yon  remember  that  the  earth 
is  a  sphere,  and  you  saw  that  the  maps,  Less.  V.,  attempt 
to  represent  on  a  plane  the  surface  of  ttic  earth.  This 
makes  the  countries  near  the  edge  of  the  map  appear, 
as  compared  with  those  near  its  centre,  out  of  propor- 
tion, and  it  throws  })laces  out  of  their  true  relative  po- 
sition both  as  to  course  and  disftance.  It  Avas  almost 
impossible  for  navigators  to  find  by '.such  a  chart  their 
true  course  and  distance  from  i)ort  to  port.  This  being 
the  case,  Mercator,  a  native  of  Antwerp  in  Belgium, 
invented  the  chart  that  goes  by  his  name. 


MERCATOR'S  CHART. 


It,  too,  distorts  the  surface  it  represents,  as  every 
chart  must  do  that  attempts  to  represent  on  a  plane  the 
surface  of  a  sphere  ;  but  it  distorts  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  all  places  on  it  i)reserve  their  true  course  from 
(;ach  other.  This  also  makes  it  easy  to  take  their  true 
distance  apart. 

The  charts  that  navigators  use  to  sail  by  at  sea  are 
all  constructed  upon  the  Mercator  principle. 

2.  Divisions  of  Water. — You  observe  by  looking  at 
this  chart  that  all  parts  of  the  sea  are  really  connected 
with  each  other  ;  and  though  the  seas  are  all  one  sheet 
of  water,  yet  they  have  been  divided  into  five  grand 


divisions  called  Oceans,  viz.,  the  Pacific,  the  Indian,  the 
Atlantic,  the  Arctic,  and  the  Southern  Oceans. 

3.  Old  and  JS^ew  Worlds. — The  land  comprises  two 
grand  divisions:  the  "Old  World"  and  the  "New 
World."  But  geographers  for  convenience  have  di- 
vided the  two  grand  masses  of  land  into  four  natural 
sections,  and  called  them  Continents,  viz..  North  Amer- 
ica, South  America,  Europe  and  Asia,  and  Africa. 

4.  Bays  and  Seas. — Some  j)arts  of  the  ocean  are 
called  Seas,  as  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  the  North  Sea  ;  others,  Bays :  as  Hudson  Bay,  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  the  Bay  of  Bengal  ;  others.  Gulfs  :  as  the 
Grulf  of  Mexico,  the  Gulf  of  California,  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land. The  definition  that  is  applied  to  a  sea  is  equally 
applicable  to  a  bay  and  gulf,  viz.,  it  is  a  sheet  of  water 
or  arm  of  the  sea  partly  surrounded  by  land. 

5.  A  Strait,  Pass,  or  JPassaf/e,  is  a  narrow  channel 
that  connects  two  larger  sheets  of  water,  as  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar,  the  Strait  of  Babelmandeb,  Behring's 
Strait,  the  Florida  Pass,  the  Mona  Passage,  the  Wind- 
ward Passage,  etc.,  etc. 

6*.  A  Harbor  is  a  sheltered  arm  of  an  ocean,  sea, 
bay,  or  gulf,  where  ships  may  anchor  and  ride  in  safety. 
It  is  generally  named  after  the  town  or  city  which  is 
situated  upon  it,  as  Boston  Harbor,  Annapolis  Harbor, 
the  Harbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  Harbor  of  Liverpool. 

7.  A  LaJce  is  a  large  inland  sheet  of  water,  either 
with  or  without  a  river  running  out  of  it,  as  Lake  Supe- 
rior, the  Great  Salt  Lake,  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  Some- 
times the  level  of  a  lake  is  far  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  sometimes  below  it. 

Questions. — Why  can  you  not  represent  without  distortion  the  surface 
of  the  ear^^h  on  a  map  ? — Why  do  navigators  prefer  charts  on  the  Mercator 
principle  to  charts  of  any  other  construction  ? — In  which  respect,  then, 
does  the  Mercator  chart  truly  represent  places? — What  and  how  many  are 
the  grand  divisions  of  the  water? — Of  the  land? — What  definitions  would 
you  give  to  a  sea,  bay,  or  a  gulf? — What  to  a  strait,  pass,  and  passage? — 
What  to  a  harbor  ? — To  a  lake  ? 


LE^SOJV  IX. 

The  Land. 

1.  A  Continent  is  a  large  body  of  land,  large  enough 
to  contain  Empires  and  States,  and  so  extended  that 
you  cannot  sail  round  it. 

2.  An  Island  is  land  that  is  surrounded  by  water  : 
as  the  Islands  of  Newfoundland,  Great  Britain,  Nan- 
tucket.    There  are  innumerable  Islands. 

3.  A  Peninsula   {pene,   almost ;    insula,    island),   is 


i6 


LAND    DIVISIONS    AND    POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


land  that  is  almost  surrounded  by  water.  Yucatan  is  a 
Peninsula,  Nova  Scotia  is  a  Peninsula,  Portugal  and 
Spain  together  form  a  Peninsula. 

4.  A  Cape,  Point,  or  Headland,  is  the  extreme 
end  of  any  land  that  juts  out  into  the  sea — as  Cape 
Hatteras,  Cape  Henry,  Cape  Cod,  Caj)e  Horn,  etc. 

The  Lizard,  in  England,  is  a  Point,  which  is  among 
mariners  one  of  the  most  famous  landmarks  in  the 
world. 

5.  Rivers  are  natural  gutters  and  drains,  for  carry- 
ing the  water  back  to  the  sea  after  it  has  performed  the 
manifold  offices  that  Supreme  wisdom  and  goodness  have 
assigned  to  it. 

6.  Mountains  are  the  watersheds  which  the  same 
Almight}^  Builder  has  constructed  for  turning  the  rains 
off"  into  their  appropriate  drains  and  channels,  and  so 
making  the  land  inhabitable. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  how  high  a  mountain  may 
be,  as  it  is  to  know  how  long,  deep,  and  wide,  a  river  is. 

The  height  of  mountains  is  always  reckoned  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Note. — The  sea  is  taken  as  the  standard  plane,  because  the  elevation  of  tlie 
land  is,  in  the  process  of  ages,  likely  to  change.  We  know  that  all  of  the 
Mississippi  valley,  and  even  the  tops  of  what  are  now  very  high  inouutains, 
were  once  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  But  the  mean  level  of  the  sea  is  always 
the  same :  and  by  measuring  the  height  of  the  land  above  it,  Ave  have  already 
discovered  that  in  some  parts  of  the  world  the  land  is  now  gradually  rising 
up,  while  in  other  parts  it  is  sinking  down. 

7.  TJie  Height  of  Mountains  is  generally  ascertained 
by  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere 
on  the  sea-shore,  and  its  weight  on  the  mountain  top. 
This  difference  is  called  the  difference  of  barometric 
pressure. 

8.  Hie  Atmosphere  has  weight  as  water  has,  but 
it  is  not  so  heavy  and  you  do  not  perceive  it,  for  the  same 
reason  that  a  swimmer  does  not  feel  the  weight  of  water 
above  him  when  he  dives — nevertheless  the  atmosphere 
presses  with  the  force  of  nearly  15  lbs.  upon  every 
square  inch  of  your  body. 

Note. — The  "  Barometer"  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  mean  pressure  or  weight  of  the  atmosphere  at  tlie  sur- 
face of  the  ocean  is  almost  15  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  ;  and  under  thiU  pressure 
the  quicksilver  in  the  tube  of  the  Barometer  stands  at  the  height  of  30  inches. 
Now  as  you  cany  the  Barometer  up  above  the  sea,  as  in  a  balloon  or  up  the 
side  of  a  mountain,  the  quicksilver  will  fall  in  the  tube  about  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  for  every  60  feet  of  perpendicular  ascent. 

9.  Deserts  are  wide,  flat  wastes  of  land,  covered  with 
sand,  generally  destitute  of  vegetation  and  water. 

They  are  perilous  to  the  traveller  ;  but,  as  we  shall 
see,  when  we  come  to  study  physical  geography,  indis- 
pensable parts  of  the  earth's  machinery. 


Natural  Geography  (sometimes  called  Physical  Geog- 
raphy) treats  also  of  the  Sea,  Earth,  and  Air,  in  all  the 
aspects  in  which  they  present  themselves  to  an  observer 
of  nature. 

In  this  sense  Physical  Geography  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting,  instructive,  and  profitable  studies  in  the 
whole  course  of  education. 

A  separate  and  special  treatise  will  be  devoted  to  it. 
In  this  Avork  it  is  treated  in  its.  more'linjited  sense  as 
natural  geography,  which  take^  cognizance,  simply  of 
the  land  and  water  as  they  are  presented  to  the -eye  by 
nature  and  represen-ted  on  the  map. 

Questions. — What  is  a  Continent — an  Island — a  Peninsula — a  Cape  ?  In 
what  light  does  the  physicial  geographer  regard  rivers — in  what,  mountains? 
How  and  from  what  plahe*is  the  height  of  mountains  measured  ? — Why  do  you 
measure  it  from  tiic  plane  of  the  sea  instead  of  from  the  surrounding  plains  ? — 
How  much  does  the  atmosi)iK're  usually  press  upon  a  square  inch  at  tlie  level 
of  the  sea? — Dues  it  |)ress  inon;  or  less  than  this  upon  the  toj)  of  a  high  mouii- 
tuiu  ? — What  is  the  name  of  the  instrument  that  measures  this  i)re8sure? — To 
what  does  physical  geography  chiefly  relate  ? — How  is  physfcal  {geography 
treated  here? 

3Iap  I^.rerriscs, — Point  otit  (m  the  map  the  isLuuls  and  peninsulas  that 
ai-e  named  in  the  lesson  •  also  the  deserts  and  the.  mountains  that  are  on  tiie 
map. — Tell — judging  by  tlie  map  and  the  eye — which  is  the  largest  ocean; 
the  smallest  continent ;  the  largest  island  ;  the  largest  range  of  mountains. — 
In  what  light  should  rivers  and  mountains  be  regarded  by  the  physical  geog- 
rapher?— Can  you  name  any  useful  purpose  that  IheyseiTe? — }Vhy  is  tlie 
sea-level  adopted  as  the  standard  from  which  the  height  of  mountains  is 
measured? — What  is  the  mean  pressure  of  the  atm'.)s|)here  when  measured  at 
the  level  of  the  sea  by  the  Barometer? — What  is  the  most  common  way  of 
measuring  the  height  of  mountains  ? 


LESSOJT   X. 

Political- Geography  and  tho  different  kinds  of 
Religion  in  the  World. 

1.  Political  Geography  treats  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  earth  ;  of  their  mauners  and  customs,  their  indus- 
trial pursuits,  their  religion,  and  their  forms  of  govern- 
ment. 

It  treats  also  of  the  divisions  which  have  been  made 
on  its  surface  by  the  various  nations,  as  Empires,  King- 
doms, and  States — such  for  exami)le  as  Russia,  France, 
the  United  States,  etc.  ;  and  of  the  features  which  have 
been,  by  man's  agency,  impressed  upon  it — -as  canals, 
railroads,  and  other  memorials  of  his  handiwork — cities 
and  towns,  farms,  mines,  dwellings,  edifices,  manufac- 
turing and  other  establishments,  with  which  his  industry 
and  energies  have  embellished  the  landscape. 

2.  Religions. — All  people  have  some  kind  of  religion. 
Those  who  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  (lod 
and  who  worship  the  Creator,  as  we  are  tauglit  to  do  in 


RELIGIONS    OF    THE     WORLD. 


17 


the  Bible,  are  called  Christians.  Those  who  do  not  be- 
lieve the  Bible,  and  who  worship  idols,  or  any  of  the 
objects  of  nature — as  the  sun,  birds,  beasts,  or  fishes,  or 
who  worship  spirits  and  imaginary  beings,  are  called 
heathens  or  pagans. 

All  the  nations  of  America  without  exception,  and  all 
the  nations  of  Europe  except  Turkey,  profess  the  Chris- 
tian religion. 

3.  Chfistendom. — -The  Christian  countries,  that  is, 
those  lands-  where  (Jod-  is  professedly  worshipped  ac- 
cording to  the  Bible,  constitute  what  is  called  Chris- 
tendom. ; 

Of  the  1350  millions  in  the  warld — its  estimated 
population — Christendom  contains  about  360  millions. 

Many  individuals  among  this  vast  multitude  are 
unbelievers  and  atheists,  so  that  we' may. assume  that 
not  one-fourth  of  all  the  people  in  the  world  acknowl- 
edge thai  Je.sus- Christ  is  the  Son  ofCiod.  • 

The  remaining*  three-fourths — 990,000,000 — are  be- 
yond the  pale  of  Christianity.  They. are  heathens,  who 
have  various  creeds. and  many  forms  of  worship. 

4.  Judaism. — The  Jews  believe  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  not  in  the  New.  They  worship  God,  but  hold 
that  Christ  was  a  man,  and  that  the  Saviour  is  yet  to 
come.  It  is  estimated. that  there  are  4.000,000  J[ews 
in  the  world,  most  of  whom  live  in  Europe  and  America. 

a.  Isldftiism. — The  Mahometp-ns    believe  that  there 
is  one   God,  and  that  Mahomet  is   his  prophet.     Ma- 
homet wrote  the  Koran  about  600  years  after  Christ 
and  the  Koran  is  the  Bible  of  his  followers. 

The  Turks,  the  Arabs,  the  Persians,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants generally  of  the  dry  countries  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
are  followers  of  Mahomet.  They  are  estimated  to  num- 
ber about  60,000,000. 

(i.  liuddhisin. — Buddha  was  the  founder  of  this 
religion.  His  followers  do  not  believe  in  any  God. 
Some  of  the  peoples  who  follow  him  have  no  word  in 
their  language  for  Deity  or  immortality.  They  believe 
there  is  no  being  superior  to  man ;  and  the  object  of 
their  religion  is  to  show  the  way  to  Nirvana,  where  man 
is  annihilated.  According  to  the  Buddhist,  annihilation 
would  be  the  summit  of  bliss. 

It  is  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  entire  human 
family  profess  this  religion.  The  majority  of  the  people 
of  Burmah,  many  in  India,  China,  Japan,  Ceylon,  Siam, 
etc.,  etc.,  are  Buddhists. 

7.  BrahminiHrn. — Its  followers,  next  to  the  Bud- 
dhists, are  the  most  numerous.     They  too  are  dwellers 


in  Asia.  The  Brahmins  hold  sway  in  India.  They 
have  deities,  some  of  which,  according  to  their  doctrines, 
have  previously  been  incarnate,  sometimes  as  men  with 
man}"  hands  or  as  beasts  with  many  heads. 

Juggernaut  is  one  of  their  most  famous  idols.  He  is 
mounted  on  a  car,  and  his  worshippers  on  certain  occa- 
sions fall  down  before  it,  that  it  ma}^  roll  over  and  crush 
them  to  death  as  his  worshippers  haul  him  along.  The 
Brahmins  number  about  150,000,000  souls. 

8.  The  Giiebt^es  [Gue'herz). — These  are  the  followers 
of  Zoroaster.  The  sun  is  the  object  of  adoration  with 
them.  The}'  are  the  fire-worshippers  of  Persia  and 
India,  and  they  are  to  the  heathen  nations  what  the 
Jews  are  to  the  Christian  nations — a  people  without  a 
country,  bu!-  who  in  a  manner  still  preserve  their  na- 
tionality. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  from  this  sketch  that  there 
are  no  Christians  except  in  Europe  and  America. 
There  are  many.  The  English  and  other  European 
powers  have  established  colonies  and  settlements  in 
various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  among  the  isl- 
ands, all  of  which  acknowledge  the  Christian  religion. 
Moreover,  the  missionaries  of  Europe  and  America  have 
made  many  converts  to  Christianity  in  most  heathen 
lands.  But  there  are  among  the  960,000,000  souls  who 
are  supposed  to  inhabit  Asia  and  Africa,  no  nations  ex- 
cept one  who  regard  the  Bible  or  acknowledge  the  reli- 
gion taught  by  it  ;  and  that  one  is  Liberia,  which  con- 
sists of  a  few  thousand  negroes,  most  of  whom  are 
emancipated  slaves  of  the  Southern  States,  sent  thence 
to  Liberia  since  1823,  by  the  Colonization  Society  of  the 
United  States. 

Out  of  every  one  hundred  souls  in  the  world  only 
twenty-six  belong  to  the  States  of  Christendom.  This 
includes  the  infidels,  atheists,  heathens,  and  unbelievers 
of  all  sorts  that  dwell  in  Christian  lands. 

Quesfiotis. — Of  wliat  does  Political  Geography  treat? — Point  out  on  the 
map  (pp.  20, 21)  some  of  the  political  divisions  of  the  earth. — Name  some  of 
its  political  features. — Wiiich  two  of  the  continents  are  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Christians  ? — Name  the  chief  Christian  nations. — Who  are  tlie  Mohammed- 
ans ? — What  is  the  chief  Mohammedan  nation  ? — How  many  inhabitants  is 
the  world  supposed  to  contain  ? — How  many  of  them  are  Christians  ? — How 
many  pagans  or  heathens  ? — What  do  they  worship  ? — What  is  the  creed  of 
the  Buddhists  ? — What  peoples  profess  lljis  raligion  ? — What  is  the  number 
of  them  V — Point  out  on  the  map  tlie  parts  of  the  world  inliabited  by  them  ? — 
Who  are  the  Mohammedans  ? — Who  wrote  the  Koran  V — When  was  it  writ- 
ten ? — Who  and  what  are  tlie  Brahmins  ? — Tell  about  .Inggernaut. — Who  are 
the  Fire-worshippers  ? — Have  they  any  country  of  their  own  ? — Name  the 
founders  of  each  one  of  these  sects. — How  many  Jews  are  there  supposed  to 
be  in  the  world? — Have  they  any  country  of  their  own? — In  what  parts  of 
the  world  do  most  of  them  dwell? — Which,  the  people  that  inhabit  Christian 
countries  or  heathen  lands,  are  the  most  numerous? — Ai'e  all  the  inhabitants 
of  Christendom  Christians? — Are  there  any  Christians  in  heathen  lands? 


i8 


GOVERNMENTS.— INDUSTRIAL    PURSUITS    OF    MAN. 


LUSSOJV  XI. 

Governments. 

1.  Savaf/es. — In  some  parts  of  the  world  the  people 
are  ignorant  of  the  proper  distinction  between  right 
and  wrong.  You,  who  have  never  lived  among  savages, 
can  have  no  idea  how  brutal  and  ignorant  some  of  them 
are.  When  the  G-eorgian  Islands  in  the  Pacific  were 
first  discovered,  the  natives  did  not  even  know  the  use 
of  fire. 

2.  Government  and  its  End. — But  all  people, 
whether  savage  or  civilized,  who  live  together,  either  as 
families,  tribes,  or  nations,  require  government  of  some 
sort;  otherwise  the  strong  will  oppress  the  weak. 

3.  Kinds  of  Government. — There  are  among  civil- 
ized nations  various  modes  of  accomplishing  this  end. 
All  of  them  differ  more  or  less  in  detail;  but  civilized 
governments  of  the  present  day  may  be  reduced  to  two 
kinds — the  Republican  and  the  Monarchial. 

4.  Reiniblican  Govern^nent,  as  that  of  the  United 
States,  is  based  upon  the  doctrine  that  all  good  govern- 
ment rests  upon  the  consent  of  the  governed. 

5.  Couf/ress. — Every  two  years  we  have  a  new  Con- 
gress, and  the  President  is  chosen  for  four  3'ears. 

Congress  and  the  President  make  the  laws,  but  they  can  onlj^  make  laws 
in  relation  to  such  matters  as  the  States  have,  in  the  Constitution,  empowered 
them  to  legislate  upon. 

(i.  Monarchies. — In  England,  the  crown  is  heredi- 
tary, and  the  government  is  based  upon  the  assumption 
of  the  law  that  the  "King  can  do  no  wrong."  When 
there  are  abuses  in  administration  the  country  holds  the 
ministers,  and  not  their  sovereign,  responsible  for  the 
proper  administration  of  public  affairs. 

7.  Senate  and  House  of  Hejyresentatives. — With 
us  Congress  consists  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. Two  Senators  are  chosen  by  each  State  to 
serve  six  years  at  a  time,  and  the  Representatives  are 
chosen  by  the  people  to  serve  two  years,  each  State 
sending  representatives  in  proportion  to  her  population. 

8.  Parliament. — In  England,  Parliament  is  the  Con- 
gress. It  consists  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  members  of  the  latter  are  chosen  by 
the  people  for  seven  years,  and  in  the  former  the  mem- 
bers consist  of  certain  of  the  nobility — the  Peers  of  the 
realm. 

9.  Ttie  Mnf/lish  Government  is  what  is  called  a 
Limited  Monarchy  :  so  are  all  the  monarchies  of  Europe, 
except  Russia  and  Turkey. 


10.  Absolute  3Ionarehies. — Those  are  Absolute  Mon- 
archies where  the  will  of  the  Sovereign  is  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land. 

There  are  Empires,  as  Russia  ;  but  there  is  no  dif- 
ference between  an  Empire  and  a  Kingdom,  except  in 
name. 

As  a  rule,  an  Empire  is  supposed  to  be  larger  than  a  Kingdom. 

11.  The  Xations  of  Euroite,  including  Great  Britain.aro  three  Em- 
pires, thirteen  Kingdoms,  and  two  Republics;  besides  Hie  pctt}'  Rcpul)lics  of 
San  Marino  and  Andorra,  tliere  are  twenty-four  Duchiesj  petty  Principali- 
ties, and  free  States. 

12.  The  Nations  of  Americu. — Tliese  are  seventeen  repuTilics,  in- 
cluding Sau  Domingo,  and  («ie  empire. 

13.  The  Xations  of  Asia.— These  are  two  empires  and  eight  king- 
doms that  are  recognized  by  us  as  belonging  to  the  family  of  nations.  But 
besides  these  there  are  an  upmost  infinite  number  of  tribes  and  petty  jxiwers. 

14.  TJie  Nations  of  Africa. — Africa  comprises  one  republic,  sev- 
eral provincesr  and  a  nuniber  of  so-called  kingdoms  and  tribes  that  do.  not 
attain  to  the  dignity  ol"  nations. 

Qucstious.^A.re  any  people  too  ignorant  to  have  sjomiG  sort*  of.  govern- 
ment?— What  is  the  jnain  object  of  government? — What  are  the  two  princi- 
pal kinds  of  governments  ? — Under  what  sort  of  government  do  you  live? — 
Tell  about  Congress. — Under  what  sort  of  government  do  tlie  English  live  ? 
— How  many  independent  nations  are  there  in  Eui-ope? — Point  out  the  em- 
pires.— IIov/  many  nations.in  America? — Point  tlieni  out  on  the  map. — How 
mauy  in  Asia  ? — Look  at  the  map,  and  name  them. 


LESSOJV,  XII. 

The  Industrial  Pursuits  of, Man,  and  the  Geographical 
Distribution  of  Labor. 

1.  Human  Industries. — In  most  countries  the  chief 
industrial  pursuits  are  agricultural.  But  agriculture  is 
by  no  means  the  onl}''  branch  of  industr\'  among  nations 
and  people.  With  some,  mining  ;  with  others,  manufac- 
turing ;  and  with  others,  seafaring,  is  the  chief  branch 
of  industry. 

2.  Chief  Branches  of  Industry.  —  The  following 
are  considered  the  chief  branches  of  industry  in  a  geo- 
graphical point  of  view  : 

Agriculture,  which  includes  tilling  the  earth  and 
the  raising  of  flocks  and  herds. 

Seafaring,  which  includes  fishing  and  navigation. 

Mining,  the  raising  of  ores  and  minerals  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  and  refining  them. 

Manufactures,  the  working  up  of  all  sorts  of  raw 
material,  so  as  to  bring  them  into  more  useful  shapes. 

Commerce  includes  buying  and  selling,  and  the  ex- 
changing of  the  products  of  one  country  for  those  of 
another. 


THE    INFLUENCES    REGULATING    THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF    LABOR. 


19 


3,  JVJij/  Industries  vary. — To  undei-stand  the  influences  which 
cause  people  to  turn  their  attention  to  this  or  that  branch  of  industry  is, 
practically,  one  of  the  most  important  and  useful  of  the  many  highly  instruc- 
tive branches  of  geography. 

In  Louisiana,  for  example,  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  is  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  industry. 

In  New  England  the  cutting  and  gathering  of  ice  from  the  ponds  in 
winter,  the  putting  of  it  on  board  ships,  and  the  sending  of  it  off  to  different 
parts  of  the  world  for  a  market,  is  an  important  industry. 

There  are  no  ice-ponds  in  Louisiana  and  no  cane-fields  in  New  England, 
simply  because  the  laws  of  nature,  as  expressed  by  climate,  forbid.  For  this 
reason  the  rural-  industries  of  countries  diflFer. 

4.  Iiidusti'ies  depend  on  Geoffraphical  Condi- 
tions.— All  industries  depend  u{3on  geographical  cir- 
cumstances and  upon  the  natural  resources,  situation, 
and  exigencies  of  the  country. 

As  an  illustration  :  Great  Britain  abounds  in  coal ;  anl  that  j'ou  may  under- 
stand what  an  important  part  coal  plays  in  her  industries,  please  to  remember 
that  while  it  took  one  hundred  thousand  men,  Herodotus  says,  twenty  years  to 
bu.ild  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Egypt,  it  takes  Great  Britain  only  nine  days  to 
raise  coal  enough  to  make  a  pile  just  as  grand.  In  a  single  year  she  has  raised 
not  less  than  one  hundred  and  twelve  millions  of  tons'  of  coal.  Now,  remem- 
ber, that  a  greater  part  of  this  coal  is  used  by  her  people  in  driving  machineiy 
and  in  manufacturing,  and  then  reflect  tliat  there  is  in  one  pound  of  coal  power 
enough  to  do  as  much  work  in  one  hour,  as  ten  able-bodied  men  can  do  in 
a  day,  and  you  will  not  be  surprised  to  hear  that  the  Island  of  Great  Britain, 
though  not  half  so  large  as  California,  contains  fifty  times  the  number  of 
people,  who  sell  annually  to  other  nations  more  than  one  thousand  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  manufactured  goods. 

Questions. — What,  in  a  geographical  point  of  view,  are  the  five  chief 
branches  of  human  indiistrj' '! — Are  these  industries  distributed  about  the 
world  in  obedience  to  any  of  the  laws  of  nature? — Name  one  of 
the  principal  branches  of-  industry  in  Louisiana. — In  Maine. — Why 
cannot  the  sugar-cane  be  cultivated  in  Maine?  —  Why  will  it 
not  grow  there? — How  many  .tons  of  coal  are  raised  in  Great  Britain 
annually? 


LESSOJV   XIII. 

About  the  Influences  which  Regulate  the  Geographical 
Distribution  of  Labor. 

1.  Horv  Nfitions  become  Great. —  We  have  seen 
what  a  great  nation  the  English  people  have,  by  con- 
forming their  industries  to  their  geographical  surround- 
ings, established  on  an  island  that  is  not  as  large  as 
any  one  of  the  largest  States  of  our  Union. 

2.  Climate. — This,  more  than  any  other  single  cause, 
influences  the  geographical  distribution  of  human  labor. 
Nature  has  prescribed  for  every  shrub,  for  every  tree, 
and  for  every  animal,  except  man  alone,  its  geographi- 
cal range. 

:i.  The  '*  Geoffraphical  Range"  of  a  plant  is  the  extent  of  the 
earth's  surface  within  wliicli  that  plant  will  thrive  in  the  open  air.  Each 
kind  of  plant,  as  well  as  each  kind  of  animal,  has  its  special  geographical 
range.  Thus  the  geographical  range  of  the  chinchona  tree,  of  cochineal,  of 
Uie  india-rubber  tree,  and  of  the  pineapple,   is  confined  to  the  Torrid  Zone. 

The  division  of  the  earth  into  zones  is  an  artifice  of  man  :  these  are  not 
natural  divisions,  like  hill  and  vale,  land  and  water,  anti  nature  doe*  not  re- 
cognize them. 


4.  List,  etc. — The  following  list  contains  the  names, 
first,  of  the  staple  vegetable  productions  that  have  their 
geographical  ranges  confined  to  the  zones,  and,  second, 
of  those  that  overlap  the  dividing  lines,  and  are  found 
in  more  than  one  zone. 

1.  Torrid  Zone. — India-rubber,  gutta-percha,  spices, 
bamboo,  cacao,  cochineal,  coffee,  the  plantain,  bread- 
fruit, cherimoya  and  mangosteen — the  most  delightful 
of  all  fruits — sarsaparilla  and  cinchona,  sago,  opium, 
dye-woods,  mahogany,  pineapples,  limes,  mangoes, 
palm-oil,  and  the  aloe. 

2.  Temperate  Zone. — Hemp,  flax,  buckwheat,  naval 
stores  (tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine  are  called  naval 
stores),  maple  sugar,  madder,  mulberries,  currants,  etc. 

3.  Frigid  Zone. — The  vegetation  of  this  zone  is  very 
poor,  and  none  of  the  great  agricultural  staples,  except 
perhaps  barley,  will  grow  there. 

'4.  Products  that  Overlap  the  Zones. — The  staple 
vegetable  productions  that  are  found  both  in  the  Torrid 
and  Temperate  Zones,  are — sugar,  tea,  rice,  cotton,  cof- 
fee, corn,  wheat,  indigo,  tobacco,  oats,  peas,  beans,  bar- 
ley, rye,  pomegranates,  melons,  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
plums,  oranges,  cherries,  lemons,  strawberries,  figs,  po- 
tatoes, beets,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  the  vine,  pump- 
kins, onions,  almonds,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  nuts, 
small  fruits,  flowers,  and  vegetables. 

It  is  chiefly  in  obedience  to  climate  that  all  labor, 
except  mining,  is  distributed  over  the  earth. 

5.  Division  of  Animals. — We  divide  animals  into 
two  classes,  the  Graminivorous  and  the  Carnivoi'ous. 


Graminivorous  means  feeding  on  grass ;  Carnivorous,  feeding  on  flesh. 
The  former,  as  the  horse  and  the  monkey,  live  upon  grass  and  other  vege- 
table food.  The  latter,  as  the  dog  and  the  lion,  live  upon  flesh.  The  range 
of  carnivorous  animals  is,  in  like  manner,  limited  by  the  geographical 
range  of  the  graminivorous  animals  which  serve  them  for  prey,  aud  the 
range  of  these  last  by  the  range  of  the  plants  upon  which  they  feed. 

6.  Han   alone   tvithout  Geoffraphical  Jtanqe. — 

All  animals  but  man  have  a  limited  range.  Man  can 
live  and  move  everywhere,  in  the  Hot  and  in  the  Frigid 
Zone,  in  the  desert  and  in  the  swamp,  in  the  depth  of 
the  mine  and  on  the  loftiest  mountain-top. 

Glaisher,  the  English  jcronaut,  ascended  more  than  five  miles  over  Lon- 
don ;  but  the  highest  dwelling  of  man  is  not  over  three  miles  above  the  sea. 

Questions. — What  is  it  that  chiefly  influences  the  distribution  of  limnun 
labor  on  the  earth  ? — Give  an  example  of  how  labor  depends  upon  climate. 
— What  is  meant  by  the  geographical  range  of  a  plant  or  animal  V — What 
animal  has  the  widest  geographical  range  ? — Name  some  of  IIk;  plants  and 
animaJs  that  have  their  geographical  range  confined  to  a  particular  zone. — 
Are  the  five  zones  natnnd  or  artificial  divisions  V — Name  some  of  the  plants 
that  overlap  these  artificial  divisions. — Which  of  the  five  chief  branches  of 
industry  is  least  influenced  by  climate  ?— Why  V— What  are  Uie  graminivo- 
rous and  what  the  carnivorous  animals  ? — The  range  of  man  ? 


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105 


tf         Eaatuf     li     (jciiiiumvlt    3U 


JO 


22 


STUDIES    ON    MERCATOR'S    MAP. CLIMATE. 


LESSOJV  XIV. 

Studies  on  Mercator's  Map  of  the  World. 

What  great  land-mass  occupies  a  central  position  on  tliis  Map?— Where 
does  it  approach  nearest  to  another  great  body  of  land  ?— Name  the  six  largest 
divisions  of  land,  including  the  largest  island.— Which  of  these  are  partially 
represented  on  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  sides  of  the  Map  ?— How  many 
Oceans  are  there?— Name  all  the  Oceans.— Where  is  Cape  Horn?— Cape  St. 
Roque  ?— Cape  Race  ?— Strait  of  Belle  Isle  ?— Cape  Farewell  V— Point  Bar- 
row?—Cape  Prince  of  Wales  ?— Cape  Blanco?— Cape  of  Good  Hope?— Cape 
Guardafui  ?— Cape  Comorin?— The  Strait  of  Sunda  ?— Tasmania  ?— The  Sand- 
wich Islands  ?— Kamtchatka  ?— Nova  Zembla  ?— Nortli  Cape  ?— Lofodeu's  Is- 
lands ?— Cape  St.  Vincent ?— Cape  Verde?— The  Canary  Islands?— The  West 
Indies  ?— Spitzbergen  ? 

What  Ocean  lies  east  of  America?— What  lies  west ?— What  division  of 
the  Earth  lies  east  of  Europe?— What  Ocean  west?— What  Ocean  lies  south 
of  Asia  ?— East  of  Asia  ?— North  of  Asia  ?— How  are  North  and  South  America 
united  ?— What  Ocean  east  of  Africa  ?— What  west  ?— What  Sea  north  ?— What 
is  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  ?— What  of  the  Atlantic  ?— Where 
is  the  Atlantic  narrowest?— How  wide  is  it  there?— The  term  Antarctic  Ocean 
is  sometimes  applied  to  the  ocean  sujrposed  to  exist  south  of  the  AntarctiA 
Circle. 

Through  what  parts  of  the  world  does  the  Arctic  Circle  run?— the  Tropic 
of  Caucer  ? — the  Equator  ?— the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  ? — the  Antartic  Cii-cle  ? — 
What  great  cities  lie  near  the  40th  parallel  of  north  latitude?— the  50th?— 
Through  what  parts  does  the  30th  parallel  of  south  latitude  pass?— Through 
what  parts  of  the  Earth  does  the  meridian  of  Washington  run? — the  meridian 
of  Greenwich  ? — the  meridian  of  Peking?— that  of  San  Francisco  ? 

Bound  North  America — South  America — Asia — Europe — Africa — Aus- 
tralia— Spitzbergen — Arctic  Ocean. 

Where  is  the  Caspian  Sea?— the  Red  Sea?— the  Great  Salt  Lake?— Hud- 
son's Bay? — the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America? — the  Mediterranean  Sea? — 
the  Black  Sea?— the  Baltic?— the  North  Sea?— the  Caribbean  Sea?— the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  ?— the  Gulf  of  California  ? 

Where  is  the  Mississippi  River  ? — the  Amazon  ? — the  Nile  ? — the  Rhine  ? — 
the  Danube? — the  Volga? — the  Ganges? — the  Amoor? — the  Darling? 

Where  are  the  Alleghany  Mountains  ? — the  Rocky  Mountains  ? — the  An- 
des ?— the  Himalaya  ?— the  Alps  ? 

Find  Washington,  New  York,  San  Francisco,  Quebec,  Livei-pool,  London, 
Paris,  Madrid,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  Bogota,  Lima,  Mexico,  Florence,  Constan- 
tinople, St.  Petersburg,  Yakutsk,  Petropaulowski,  Honolulu,  Melbourne, 
Havana,  Reikiavik,  Peking,  Yedo. 

Which  contains  the  most  land,  the  Northern  or  Southern  Hemisphere? 
Ana.  The  Nortliern  contains  three  times  as  much  as  the  Southern. — Which  con- 
tains most,  the  Eastern  or  Western  Hemisphere  ?  Ans.  The  Eastern  contains 
twice  as  much. — Which  Zone  has  the  greatest  proportion  of  land  ?  Ans.  T7ie 
If&rth  Temperate  Zone :  it  has  thirteen  times  as  much  land  as  tfw  South  Tem- 
perate Zone. — How  much  of  the  earth's  circumference  in  the  equatorial  re- 
gion is  water?  Ans.  Four-fifths. — How  are  the  great  Peninsulas  of  the 
Eai-th  generally  projected  ?  Ans.  Toward  tlie  south,  e.  g.,  Spain,  Arabia,  Indo- 
China,  Corea,  Kamtchatka,  Africa,  South  America,  Alaska,  California,  Ma- 
lacca, and  Greenland,  and  several  other  peninsulas. — How  far  have  geo- 
graphers explored  the  Northern  Hemisphere  toward  the  North  Pole  ?  Ans. 
iVo<  farther  than  the  %2d  parallel  of  latitude. — On  what  parallel  of  latitude  are 
both  the  Old  and  New  World  broadest?  Ans.  On  the  50th  parallel  of  north 
latitude. — Considering  Australia  a  Continent,  what  proportion  of  the  Earth's 


known  land  do  you  suppose  c(msists  of  islands?  Ans.  About  one-twerUy- 
fifth. — How  do  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  New  World  run  ? — How  do  those 
of  the  Old  World  run,  mostly  ? — In  and  near  what  Zone  do  you  find  the 
highest  mountains?  Ans.  The  Torrid. — Compare  the  coasts  of  North  and 
South  America  with  those  of  Greenland,  Europe,  and  Africa,  and  see  if  they 
would ^<  into  each  otlwr,  if  brought  togetlier. 

Note. — Does  not  the  eastern  angle  of  South  America  look  as  if  it  had  been 
torn  out  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  the  western  projection  of  Africa  out  of 
tlie  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  You  see  how  the  projections  of  one  coast  correspond 
with  the  recesses  in  the  opposite  coast ;  even  the  mountains  and  plains  of  the 
one  correspond  with  those  of  the  other. 

The  meridian  of  Teneriffe,  one  of  the  Caniry  Islands,  divides  the  Earth 
into  two  parts  ;  in  one  of  them  the  land  greatly  predominates,  in  tlie  other 
the  water  predominates.  On  M'liich  side  of  that  meridian  is  the  great  mass 
of  Land? 


LEssojv  xr. 

;About  Glimato. 

1.  Climate  is'  the  combined  effect  of  light;  heat,  elec- 
tricity, and  moisture,  and  is  manifested  in  what  we  call 
'7Ae  weather  J^ 

It  was  held  for  a  long  while  that  the  climate  of  a  place 
depended  only  upon  itvS  latitude,  but  i)laces  in  the  same 
latitude  may  and  often  do  have  very  different  climates. 

2.  Jlotintain  To^ts. — rit  is  a  Avell  known  fact  that  the 
weather  on  the  top  of  u  mountain  is  generally  cooler 
than  the  weather  at  its  foot.  Indeed  there  are  some  parts 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  even  in  our  own  country,  unin- 
habitably  cold.  They  arc  alway's  covered  with  snow, 
both  in  winter  and  summer. 

There  are,  in  South  America,  where  the  Andes  are  crossed  by  the  Equatoi, 
peaks,  such  as  Antisana,  wliieh,  although  it  is  a  burning  volcano,  jiuslies  its  top 
up  to  the  height  of  It), 1:17  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea — so  high  as  to  reacli 
frozen  regions.  On  the  top  of  that  mountain,  even  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  with 
the  sun  directly  overhead,  the  cold  is  bitter. 

The  line  of  elevation  above;  which  the  cold  is,  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  sufficient  to  congeal  the  moisture  of 
the  air  and  form  snow,  is  called  the  Snow-Line. 

3.  The  Snow-Line  at  the  Bquator. — The  limit  of 
the  snow-line  at  the  Equator  is  16,000  feet  above  the 
sea  ;  so  there  are  mountains  in  the  Torrid  Zone  on  the 
tops  of  which  the  weather  is  as  cold  as  it  is  at  the  North 
Pole.  The  ice  never  thaws,  and  no  green  thing  can 
grow  there.  In  descending  these  snow-capped  moun- 
tains in  the  Tropics,  we  experience,  in  a  ride  of  a  few 
hours,  all  the  changes  of  climate  that  would  be  felt  in 
travelling  from  Spitzbergen  to  Cuba  in  a  single  day. 

4.  Causes  wJiich  influence  climate.  —  From  facts 
like  these,  it  appears  that  climate  depends  upon  height 
above  the  sea,  as  well  as  upon  distance  from  the  Equator. 

But  climates  are  influenced  bv  other  circumstances  also. 


CLIMATE    AND    LABOR. 


23 


The  Island  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Territory  of 
Labrador  lie  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude, 
and  yet,  notwithstanding  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and 
the  mountains  of  Wales,  are  higher  than  the  hills  of 
Labrador,  the  winter  climate  of  England  is  so  mild 
that  the  pastures  are  green  all  the  year,  and  London 
has  to  depend  upon  the  ponds  of  New  England,  which 
are  six  degrees  nearer  to  the  Equator,  to  fill  its  ice-houses  ; 
while  the  winter  climate  of  Labrador,  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  so  cold  as  to  render  the  country  uninhabitable. 

Scotland,  ia  the  northern  part  of  Great  Britain,  is  not  only  more  moun- 
tainous than  Labrador,  but  it  is  also  farther  from  the  Equator ;  yet  its 
winter  climate  is  very  much  milder  than  tluit  of  Labrador. 

This  difference  of  climate  depends  both  upon  the 
situation  of  those  countries  with  regard  to  the  sea, 
ami  ui)on  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  winds. 

In  the  British  Islands,  the  winds  come  from  the  ocean.^  They  are 
l(;ade(l  with  moisture  from  the  sea,  and  warmth  from  the  Gulf  Stream. 
In  Labrador  they  cfnne  from  the  land,  and  are  dry  and  cold.  It  is 
owing  to  the  direction  of  the  winds  with  regard  to  the  sea  that  the  cli- 
mates of  Oregon  and  British  Columbia  are  mild  like  tliose  of  "Western 
Europe,  not  cold  like  tliose  of  countries  in  the  same,  latitude  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  America. 

3.  A  Hide  for  Climates. — In  (;ountries  within  the 
temperate  zones,  where  the  prevailing  winds  come 
from  the  sea,  the  climates  are  not  so  cold  in  winter 
nor  so  warm  in  summer  as  they,  are  where  the 
winds  come  from  the  land. 

The  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  throughout 
the  teuiperate  zones  is  horn  the  westward,  but  from 
the  eastward  in  the  torrid  zone. 

Xotwilhstauding  the  mild  winter  climate  of  Great 
Britain,  the  summer  there  is  too  cool  for  Indian 
corn  to  grow. 

Thus,  in  order  to  judge  proi)erly  as  to  the  climate 
of  a  country,  the  geographer  has  to  take  into  consider- 
ation not  ouly  its  distance  from  the  Ecjuator  and  its  height 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  but  its  distance  from  the  sea 
and  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  winds  also,  and  ascer- 
tain whether  they  come  from  the  land  or  from  the  water. 

The  Uible-land  of  Mexico  is  six  or  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea ;  and 
notwithstanding  it  is  in  the  torria  zone,  it  is  not  so  high  as  to  have  a  cold,  or 
so  low  as  to  have  a  hot,  climate.  There  are  only  two  seasons  there.  We 
have  four.  With  the  Mexicans,  the  year  is  divided  into  the  rainy  and  the 
dry  seasons ;  they  have  no  wintry  weather.  The  cactus,  with  its  variety  of 
forms,  is  the  characteristic  vegetation  of  the  Mexican  table-land. 

0.  I.sothermfil  lAnes. — To  give  a  better  idea  of 
climates  than  a  knowledge  merely  of  latitude  would 
convey,  Humboldt  introduced  the  plan  of  drawing  on 
the  maps  lines  through  all  places  having  the  same  aver- 
age temperature.  These  lines  are  irregular  curves, 
Jind  they  are  called  Iso-therms  (same  temperature). 


They  do  not  tell  the  climate,  but  they  convey  a  bet- 
ter idea  of  what  the  climate  of  this  or  that  place  prob- 
ably is,  than  a  mere  statement  of  its  latitude  or  eleva- 
tion above  the  sea  would  do. 

The  striking  lend  of  these  isotherms  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  moisture  in  the  air,  the  agency  of  the  winds, 
and  of  the  great  currents  of  the  Ocean. 

The  isotherm  of  New  York,  immediately  on  leaving  the  Atlantic  coast,  is 
bent  down  by  a  cold  Arctic  current  running  near  the  coast ;  but  as  soon  as 
this  line  enters  the  Gulf  Stream  it  inclhies  northward  toward  Europe,  and 
conies  out  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  1500  miles  farther  north  than 
New  York. 


Sandwich.  Is. 


-Havftniv- 

Jamaica  S.  Domingo 
Caracas 


I  S  O  T  II  K  K  M  A  I.      LINES. 


7.  Industries  ami  Climates.  —  Though  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  all  (ujricultural  labor  is  almost 
wholly  ail  affair  of  climate,  there  are  other  industries, 
such  as  mining  and  manufacturing,  that  are,  to  a  certain 
extent,  independent  of  climate. 

The  laboring  man  in  some  countries  abandons  th.^ 
cultivation  of  the  .soil,  especially  in  those  parts  of  thr, 
world  where  the  sea  with  its  bounties,  or  the  factorj- 
with  its  attractions,  or  the  forest  with  its  game,  becomes 
more  tempting  than  the  soil. 

H.  Tttde  for  Labor. — From  all  this  we  derive  this 
geographical  rule  :  As  you  recede  from  the  warm  cli- 
mates of  the  South  and  approach  the  cold  regions  of  the 
North,  human  labor  becomes  less  and  less  agricultural, 


24 


OUR    OWN    COUNTRY. 


and   the  occupations    of  man    more    and    more    diver- 
sified. 

It  is  in  obedience  to  this  law  that  the  Northern  States 
are  more  devoted  to  manufactures  and  commerce  and 
seafaring  than  the  Southern  States  are. 

Quesfions. — "What  is  climate  ? — Does  the  climate  of  places  depend  en- 
tirely upon  latitude  and  elevation  above  the  sea-level  ?— What  other  two 
conditions  influence  climate  ?— As  you  ascend  a  high  mountain  does  it  grow 
warmer  or  colder?— What  is  the  snow-line ?— How  high  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  is  the  snow-line  at  the  Equator  ?— How  high  is  Antisana  ?— Compare 
the  climate  of  England  with  that  of  Labrador.— They  are  in  the  same  lati- 
tude :  show  the  contrasts.— Point  out  these  countries  on  the  map.      (Mer- 


cator's.)  Can  yon  describe  the  difference  in  their  climates  ? — How  do  you 
account  for  that  difference  ? — How  does  the  climate  of  Oregon  and  British 
Columbia  compare  with  the  climates  of  countries  between  the  same  parallels 
of  latitude  that  front  on  the  Atlantic,  as  Maine  and  Labrador  ? — What  is  the 
general  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  in  the  temperate  zone  ? — What  in 
the  torrid  ? — What  are  the  conditions  upon  which  climates  mainly  depend  V 
— Wluit  is  the  height  of  the  table-lands  of  Mexico  ? — Describe  the  climate 
there. — Does  Indian  corn  grow  in  England  ? — Wliat  are  isothermal  lines  ? — 
Who  suggested  them  ? — Can  you  trace  the  isotherm  of  40°  V — How  many  de- 
grees of  latitude  does  it  cross  in  running  from  the  west  to  the  east  coast  of 
the  United  States? — Is  there  any  geographical  reason  why  the  people  of  the 
New  England  States  should,  more  readily  than  the  people  of  the  Southern 
States,  resort  to  the  sea,  the  railroad,  and  the  fiictory  for  a  living  ? — Point  out 
on  the  map  those  countries  whose  sea-coast  lies  within  the  temperate  zone. 
— What  geographical  rule  does  this  lesson  teixch  with  regard  to  human  labor? 


=>*-= 


II.    DESCRIPTION   OF   COUNTRIES. 


'"mm 


ANIMAL     LIPE     OK     NOKTU     AMEKICA. 


LUSSOJV  XVI. 

Our  own  Country — its  Discovery  and  Settlement. 

1.  The  Discover  If  of  America. — America  is  our 
country,  and  it  is  both  interesting  and  instructive  to 
learn  its  geography  before  it  was  inhabited  by  the 
white  man. 

Though  America  is  one  of  the  grand  divisions  of  the 
world,  as  late  as  four  centuries  ago  it  was  unknown  to 


the  people  of  Europe.  It  was  then  inhabited  by  red 
men  and  wild  beasts.  It  was  discovered,  you  remem- 
ber, by  Christopher  Columbus  in  1492,  and  was  named 
America  after  Americus  Vespucius,  one  of  his  compan- 
ions, a  Florentine. 

The  first  land  discovered  was  j\^hat  is  now  caHed 
Watling  Island,  which  is  one  of  the  small  islands  of  the 
West  Indies.  This  event  led  to  the  discovery  of  other 
islands,  and  finally  of  the  American  continent  itself. 


DISCOVERY    AND    SETTLEMENT    OF    AMERICA. 


25 


2.  Tlie  West  Indies. — Columbus  at  first  thought  that 
the  islands  he  had  discovered  were  the  East  Indies,  and 
when  he  found  out  they  were  not,  they  were  called  the 
Wed  Indies.  In  soil,  climate,  and  productions  there  is  a 
striking  similarity  between  the  two  groups. 

3.  Indians. — Both  North  and  South  America,  with 
their  adjacent  islands,  were  inhabited  by  Indians,  of 
whom  only  the  Peruvians  and  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico 
were  civilized.- 


ALPACA   IiLAMA  , 


4.  Domestic  Animals — There  were  no  horses  and  no 
milch  kiiie  on  the  Continent  at  the  time  of  its  discovery. 
Neither  was  there  any  draught  animal,  beast  of  burden, 
or  domestic  animal  of  any  kind  known  to  the  natives, 
except  the  hairless  dog  of  Cuba  and  the  llama  of  Peru. 

.5.  Sarf/asso  Sea. — Among  the  strange  things  that 
Cohimbiis  and  his  men  came  across  on  their  outward 
voyage  was,  as  you  have  learned  in  a  previous  book,  the 
Sargasso  Sea.  That  same  sea  of  weeds  is  still  there.  It 
embraces  an  area  of  thousands  of  square  miles. 

6'.  The  Trade-Wind. — Another  thing  that  amazed 
and  alarmed  his  crew  was  that,  after  leaving  Si)ain  and 
getting  out  to  sea,  they  found  the  wind  did  not  change 
its  direction.  Day  after  day  it  continued  from  the 
northeast.  They  feared  that  they  shoul-d  never  be 
able  to  return  to  their  own  country  against  such  a  wind. 
This  was  the  northeast  trade-wind,  well  known  to  every 
sailor  of  the  j)rcsent  day. 

7.  Sfraiif/e  Things  in  the  New  ITorir/— But  as  wontlerful  and  as 
nuirvellous  iis  these  thinj^s  were,  the  red  men  of  America,  witli  their  jMpes, 
bows,  and  tomahawks;  the  inter-troi)ieal  ve,!,'etation  of  the  islands,  with  lis 
delicious  fruits  and  beautiful  flowers;  and  the  perpetual  summer  of  the  Tiop- 
ics,  with  its  soft  climates,  were  still  more  so ;  and  the  stories  told  by  the  simple 
natives  of  mifchty  nations  and  golden  treasures  in  a  land  still  farther  to  the 
westward,  filled  the  minds  and  inflamed  the  imagination  of  these  daring 
mariners  with  the  most  dazzling  pictures  and  extravagant  allurements — such 
4 


as  a  fountain  in  Florida,  whose  waters  imparted  perpetual  youth  to  all  who 
bathed  in  them  ;  and  a  King  in  the  fastnesses  of  South  America,  who  every 
morning  was  anointed  with  oil  and  covered  with  gold-dust.  This  was  the 
famous  but  fabled  El  Dorado  {gilt  with  gold),  who  lived  somewhere  on  the 
banks  of  the  Orinoco,  in  a  city  called  Manoa.  Its  houses  were  roofed  with 
gold,  and  its  streets  paved  with  precious  stones. 

8.  Spanish  and  Portuffuese  Settlements. — Spain 
followed  up  her  splendid  discoveries  in  the  New  World 
by  immediate  possession,  and  the  prompt  establishment 
of  colonies,  of  which  Cuba  and  the  Spanish  Republics 
of  America  are  the  living  memorials. 

She  was  closely  followed  by  Portugal,  who 
afterwards  claimed  Brazil  by  right  of  sup- 
posed priority  of  discovery. 

Bartiiolomew  Dias,  one  of  her  navigators,  doubled  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  six  years  before  Columbus  saw  America. 
Another,  Vasco  de  Gamo,  made  the  first  voyage  to  India  by 
that  route. 

9.  The  Line  of  no  Variation. — Between  these  two 
powers  the  New  World  was  partitioned  according  to  a  sup- 
posed physical,  but  an  ill-defined  and  ever-changing  line — 
the  Urn  of  no  variation.  In  Europe  the  needle  points  to  the 
west  of  north,  ("olumbus,  as  he  crossed  the  Atlantic,  was  the 
first  to  discover  this  variation  ;  and  the  Pope,  who  was  then 
at  the  height  of  his  power,  used  this  line  of  no  variation  as  a 
line  of  geographical  division  between  the  possessions  of  the 
two  wrangling  powers.  But  this  line  is  ever  changing  its 
position,  and  fiiiled  entirely  to  subserve  the  purposes  of  a 
geographical  boundary. 

10.  Early  Colonies. — The  first  colony  was  estab- 
lished on  the  James  river  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in 
1607.  That  was  soon  followed  up  by  the  establishment 
of  other  colonies.  The  Roman  Catholics  settled  Maryland, 
the  Quakers  Pennsylvania,  the  Puritans  New  England. 

The  Dutch  had  settlements  in  New  York,  the  Swedes 
in  New  Jersey,  and  the  Danes  in  Delaware  ;  but  in 
1662  the  inhabitants  of  these  colonies  became  subject  to 
the  rule  of  England. 

San  Augustine  {San  au-gys-teen'),  in  Florida,  is  the  oldest  settlement  in 
the  whole  United  States.  Florida  belonged  to  Si)ain  until  1810,  and  the 
Spaniards  had  a  settlement  there — at  San  Augustine — nearly  fifty  years  before 
Capt.  John  Smith  established  at  Jamestown  England's  first  American  colony. 

Qiicfifions. — 1.  On  what  Continent  do  you  live  ? — When  and  by  whom 
was  America  discovered? — By  whom  was  it  inhabited? — Whence  does  it 
derive  its  name? — What  was  the  first  land  discovered?  2.  How  did  the 
West  Indies  get  their  name  ?  3.  Were  any  of  the  aborigines  of  America 
civilized  ? — Who  ?  4.  What  was  their  only  domestic  animal  and  beast  of 
burden  ?  S.  What  and  where  is  the  Sargasso  Sea  ? — Point  it  out  on  the  map. 
a.  What  natural  phenomenon  alarmed  the  crew  of  Columbus  ? — Why  ?  7. 
What  things  in  the  New  World  aj^peared  most  astonishing  to  the  discoverers? 
— What  fabulous  stories  did  they  hear  and  believe? — Where  was  the  Foun- 
tain of  Youth? — Who  was  El  Dorado?  S.  What  Nation  was  the  first  to 
jilant  colonies  in  the  New  World  ? — Why  did  Portugal  claim  a  portion  of  it  ? — 
Who  was  her  great  navigator,  and  what  discoveries  did  he  make  ? — By  whom 
and  how  were  the  rival  claims  settled  ?  i).  What  is  the  line  of  "  no  varia- 
tion ?"— Is  it  stationary  ?  10.  Which  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States  ?— 
How  long  after  Spain  established  settlements  in  America  before  England  began 
to  plant  colonies  in  the  New  World  ? — When  and  where  was  her  first  colony 
established? — What  were  the  other  early  settlements? 


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STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    NORTH    AMERICA. 


27 


LESSO.'N'    XVII. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  North  America. 

Boundaries. 

Within  what  Meridians  and  Parallels  is  North  America  included  ?— How 
is  North  America  bounded? — What  body  of  water  connects  the  Atlantic 
with  the  Arctic  Ocean?— What  Strait  connects  the  Arctic  and  the  Pacific 
Oceans  ?  (see  p.  10).— What  Sea  and  Gulf  wash  this  Continent  on  the  south- 
east?— What  great  body  of  water  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  Continent  ? 
—What  land  lies  east  of  Baffin  Bay  ?— Is  Greenland  anywhere  united  to 
North  America  ?—M««.  Nowhere,  e.\cept  by  the  ice  in  Smith's  Sound. 

Where  is  Smith's  Sound? — In  what  direction  does  Greenland  extend? — 
Point  out' Cape  Farewell. — Where  and  what  is  Iceland? — Point  out  Cape 
North  in  Iceland. 

What  Cape  is  first  seen  by  a  vessel  crossing  from  England  to  America  ? 


Indentations. 

How  and  where  does  the  Atlantic  Ocean  make  indentations  into  the 
-shores  of  North  America?  Ans.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence. — Where  does  the  Pacific  indent  the  Continent?  Aim.  In  the  Gulf 
of  Califoriiia. — Does  not  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  look  as  if  the  Ocean  Jiad  scooped 
out  tlie  land?  The  great  Eiiualorial  current,  coming  from  the  Eastern  side 
of  the  Atlantic,  enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  between  Yucatan  and  Cuba,and 
sweeping  in  a  circuit  of  the  Gulf,  issues  at  tiic  Florida  Channel,  in  the  Qlulf 
Stream. 


Confij^ufation. 

Through  what  Strait  would  you  enter  Baffin  Bay  from  tiie  Atlantic  ? — How 
would  you  enter  tlie  Arctic  Ocean  from  liie  Pacific  ';  (p.  10).— Point  out  Yucatan 
{yu-cH-taii). — Where  is  the  Bay  ()f  Honduras? — Point  out  the  West  Indies. — 
Point  out  Cape  Sable — Cape  Ilatteras— C'a|)e  Cod — Cajjc  Race — The  Strait  of 
Belle-isle — Hudson  Strait — Lancaster  Sound — Barrow  Strait — Melville  Sound 
— Cape  Bathurst — Point  Barrow — Fo.x.  Cliannel — IJehring  Strait — Melville 
Ishtnd — Queen  Charlotte  Sound — Cape  Flattery — Cape  Mendocino  {men-do- 
aee'  no)— Toint  Conception — Cape  San  Lucas. 


Watei-  Divisions. 

Find  Lake  Nicaragua — Great  Salt  Lake — Lake  Superior — Lake  Michigan 
— Lake  Winuepeg — Lake  Athabasca — Great  Slave  Lake. 

Find  Ballenas  Bay — Chesapeake  Bajr — Ascension  Bay — Gulf  of  Te- 
huantepec  (Itih-tcan'te-pek) — Bay  of  Panama. — Where  is  the  Gulf  of  Darien  ? 
—Where  is  Campeche  Bay  ? — Where  is  James  Bay? 


Mountains. 

What  three  mountain-ranges  are  tliere  in  North  America? — Do  they  run 
m  the  general  direction  of  the  sea-coasts  near  them  ? — How  do  liie  Rocky 
Mountains  run  ? — Tlie  Sierra  Nevada  ? — The  Alleghany  Mountains  ? — Which 
is  the  longest  range  ? — Which  the  shortest  ? — Which  the  loftiest  ? — Which 
contains  Mount  Shasta?  The  Rocky  Mountain  range  crosses  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  and  is  prolonged  in  the  Andes  of  South  America  to  the  extremity  of 
that  continent  at  Cape  Horn. — How  long  is  that?    (See  Map,  p.  20.) 

Where  are  the  Sierra  Madre  Mountains  ? — The  Cascade  Mts.  ? 

Point  out  Mount  St.  Elias.  This  is  the  highest  peak  in  North  America. — 
Where  is  Mount  Hecla?— Long's  Peak  ?— Pike's  Peak  ?— Spanish  Peaks? 

How  are  North  America  and  South  America  imited  ? — How  wide,  by  the 
Map  and  Scale,  is  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  in  its  narrov/est  part? 


Islands. 

Name  some  of  the  principal  islands  near  the  Arctic  coast  of  the  Continent 

— near  the  Atlantic  coast — near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico — near  the  Pacific  coast. — 
Point  out  Cuba — Hayti — San  Domingo — Porto  Rico — Andros  Island — New- 
foundland— Vancouver  Island — Queen  Charlotte  Island — Long  Island — 
Prince  of  Wales   Land — Breton  Island — Anticosti. 


Rivers. 

Where  is  the  Mississippi  River  ?— Trace  its  course — Where,  the  Missouri  ? 
— Trace  it. — The  St.  Lawrence — the  Ohio — the  Ottawa — the  Cumberland — 
the  Brazos — the  Rio  Pecos — Lewis  River — Clark's  River— Red  River — the 
Arkansas — the  Tennessee — the  Platte — the  Saskatchawan — the  Mackenzie — 
the  Yukon — tht;  Columbia — the  Colorado — the  Rio  Grande  ? — How  long  is 
the  Mississippi? — The  Missouri? 

Where  does  the  Rio  Gi-ande  del  Norte  rise? — In  which  direction  does  the 
Mississippi  flow  ? — the  Ohio — the  Saskatchawan — the  Yukon — the  St.  Law- 
rence— the  Mackenzie  ? 


Peninsulas. 

Point  out  the  Peninsulas  of  Yucatan,  Florida,  Nova  Scotia,  Alaska,  and 
California. — Victoria  Land,  King  William's  Land,  Boothia,  Melville  Penin- 
sula. 


Political   Divisions. 

What  three  great  countries  lie  wholly  north  of  the  Trojiic  of  Cancer? 

What  are  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States ?— What,  of  Alaska?— Of 
Labrador?— Of  the  Dominion  of  Canada? — Of  Mexico? 

Bound  Mexico. — What  CQUutry  lies  between  the  Caribbean  {k/ii--ih-be'<ih) 
Sea  and  the  Pacitic  Ocean  ? 

To  what  power  do  Cuba  aiul  Porto  Rico  belong?  Ana.  To  S|)ain. — To 
what  power  does  Jamaica  belong?  Anx.  To  England. — Is  Hayti  independ- 
ent?   Ans.  Yes. 

Miscellaneous. 

In  which  zone  is  North  Auu-rica  mostly  sitn;i(cd? 

Where  would  you  fiiul  tropical  |)roductions  on  the  (Jontinent  ? 

Where  are  the  finest  fisheries?  Ans.  On  the  northeastern  and  noith- 
western  coasts. 

Where  is  grain  most  extensively  cultivated?  Ans.  In  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi. 

Where  are  the  winters  coldest,  on  the  coast  or  in  the  interior  of  the  same 
latitude  ?     Ans.  In  the  Interior. 

Which  are  the  two  largest  political  divisions  of  North  America?— Which 
is  next  in  size? — Next?— Which  is  the  snudlest  ? 

Are  all  the  West  India  Islands  in  the  Torrid  Zone  ? — How  much  of  Mexico 
is  in  the  Temperate  Zone  ? 

Where  do  the  Esquimaux  live  ? — Where  is  Upernavik  ? — Ilopedale  ? — St. 
John's? — Havana? — Aspinwall  ? — City  of  Mexico? — ('liiiuiahua  {che-wah - 
wah)  ?— San  Francisco  ?— Virginia  City  ?— St.  Paul  ?— Detroit  ?— Buffiilo  ?— 
Albany  ? — Washington  ? — Memphis  ? 

AVhat  mountains  and  rivers  would  you  cross  in  going  directly  from 
Washington  city  to  San  Francisco  ? — From  the  city  of  Mexico  to  New  York  ? 
— Where  is  the  Magnetic  Pole  ? 

What  are  the  most  northern  lands  of  North  America? — the  most 
eastern  ? — the  most  western  ? — the  most  soiUhern  ? 

What  parallels  of  latitude  woidd  you  cross  in  going  from  Panama  to  Point 
Barrow  ? — What  meridians  of  longitude  would  you  cross  in  going  from  Sitka 
to  St.  John's,  Newfoundland  ? 


28 


HISTORICAL    VIEW.— GEOGRAPHICAL    FEATURES    OF    AMERICA. 


LEssojv  xriii. 

Our  own  Country — Gontinued. 

1.  Early  English  Settlements. —  After  establishing 
the  colony  at  Jamestown,  in  Virginia,  England  pro- 
ceeded to  establish  and  acquire  others,  until  her  colonies 
numbered  thirteen.  These  were  Virginia,  Maryland, 
Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Delaware, 
Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  and  Connecticut.  These 
are  often  called  the  "  Original  Thirteen^ 

These  colonies  were  governed  very  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  Dominion  of  Canada  now  is,  but  had  no 
voice  in  their  own  government. 

2.  TJie  Revolution. — After  many  j'ears  of  unwar- 
ranted restrictions  and  painful  exactions,  they  became 
dissatisfied  with  the  treatment  they  received  from  the 
mother  country,  and  complained  to  the  King  and  his 
ministers.  The  colonists  obtained  no  redress  of  their 
grievances.  Then,  in  the  persons  of  their  representa- 
tives, they  met  in  what  is  now  called  "Independence 
Hall."  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  and 
declared  themselves  free,  sovereign,  and  independent. 
But  it  became  necessary  to  fight,  to  make  the  declara- 
tion good. 

Finally,  after  seven  years'  war,  we  were  acknowledged 
by  Great  Britain  herself  to  be  thirteen  independent 
powers.  Afterward  the  "  Thirteen"  agreed  to  unite 
under  the  Constitution,  and  create  the  government  of 
The  United  States  of  America. 

3.  I*olitlcal  Chanffcsy  etc. — ^At  the  end  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  Kentucky,  and  all  that  territory  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  which  now  constitutes  the  States  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  be- 
longed to  Virginia.  She  ceded  it  to  the  government  of 
the  United  States  in  trust  for  the  benefit  of  all  the 
States  alike. 

In  1803  Louisiana,  which  then  included  what  is  now 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  other  States  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, was  purchased  from  the  French. 

In  1819  Florida,  which  belonged  to  the  Spaniards, 
was  purchased  from  Spain. 

In  1845  Texas — having  previously  revolted  from 
Mexico  and  established  her  independence — was  annexed 
to  the  United  States,  and  became  one  of  them. 

In  1848  California  was  bought  from  Mexico  for 
$20,000,000,  and  Arizona,  in  1854.  for  $10,000,000. 
Finally,  in  1867,  Russian  America,  marked  on  the  maps 


as  Alaska,  was  purchased  from  Russia  for  $7,200,000, 
and  thus  the  borders  of  the  "Original  Thirteen"  have 
been  enlarged  to  their  present  gigantic  proportions. 

Questions. — 1.  Name  the  original  thirteen.  To  whom  did  they  belong 
as  colonies  ?— How  were  they  governed  ?  2.  How  did  they  become  separated 
from  the  British  Crown? — When  and  where  did  tliey  proclaim  their  inde- 
pendence? 3.  What  was  the  extent  of  the  Territory  tliat  orijrinally  formed 
the  State  of  Virginia?— What  did  she  do  with  it? — How  have  the  United 
States  since  enlarged  their  borders  most,  by  purchase  or  by  conquest  ? 


LESSOJSr  XIX. 

Geographical  Position  and  Features  of  America.- 

/.  Geographical  Vosition. — Before  we  go  farther 
into  the  political  geogra})hy  of  our  own  country,  let  us 
take  a  general  survey  of  Mercator's  map  (pp.  21  and  22), 
and  study  the  geographical  position  which  the  American 
Continents  occupy  with  regard  to  the  rest  x)f- the  world. 
This  position  is  important  in  its  commercial,  political, 
and  social  aspects. 

2.  Extent. — The  Continents  ftf  America,  as  you  will 
observe  on  the  map,  stretch  from  the  frozen  regions  of 
the  North  to  the  inhospitable  climes  of  Cape  Horn 
[Caho  de  Ornos),  so  called  from  the  number  of  burning 
volcanoes  which  the. Spaniards,  w.ho  first  doubled  it,  saw. 

They  called  it,  therefore,  the  Cape  of  the  Furnaces  or  Ovens  (Ornos). 

These  Continents  extend  from  the  parallel  of  75^^ 
North  to  that  of  57°  South. latitude,  which  is  more  than 
nine  thousand  statute  miles  in  length  ;  and  they  include 
within  their  borders  large  portions  of  four  out  of  the 
five  great  zones  into  which  geographers  have  divided 
the  earth.     Area,  excluding  islands,  15,000,000  sq.  ms. 

Asia  and  Africa  lie  each  partly  in  three,  and  Europe  in  two  of  the  zones ; 
and  though  America  is  not  the  largest  continent  in  area,  it  includes  a  gieatcr 
range  of  latitude,  embraces  a  greater  diversity  of  climate,  and  yields  as  great 
a  variety  of  vegetable  productions  as  all  the  others  put  together. 

3.  Advantages  of  I*osition. — America  lies  between 
the  two  great  Oceans  ;  it  has  the  Atlantic  on  the  East 
and  the  Pacific  on  the  West.  Its  harbors  on  the  Pa- 
cific are  midway  between  the  western  shores  of  Europe 
and  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia. 

With  its  double  sea  front,  numerous  harbors,  narrow 
isthmus,  and  central  position,  combined  with  its  great 
length  from  North  to  South,  and  the  quick  transit 
across  it,  and  its  great  diversity  (^f  climate,  America  is 
destined  to  be  the  most  maritime  and  commercial  of  all 
the  continents. 

Commercially,  it  is  in  the  position  of  a  half-way  house 
between  the  maritime  nations  of  Western  Europe  and 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


29 


Eastern  Asia.     Highways  for  commerce  have  been  con- 
structed across  it,  and  more  are  in  preparation. 

Australia  is  a  British  Possession,  and  already  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is 
made  the  thoroughfare  for  mails  and  passengers  between  that  land  of  gold 
and  its  mother  country. 

The  maritime  nations,  and  especially  the  United  States,  are  making  serious 
efforts  to  open  a  ship-canal  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Should  this  be 
accomplished,  through  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  or  Panama,  the  canal 
would  doubtless  become  the  great  commercial  thoroughfare  for  the  world's 
caravan  of  trade. 

4.  Hivers  and  Lakes. — America  possesses  larger 
rivers  than  any  of  the  other  continents.  It  is  more 
abundantly  watered  than  any  of  them,  and  it  has  a 
smaller  extent  of  desert  waste  and  barren  land  than 
either  Africa  or  Asia,  and  is  capable  of  sustaining  a 
larger  ])opulation  than  either. 

More  than  half  of  all  the  fresh  water  in  the  world  is 
contained  in  the  Great  North  American  Lakes,  and 
there  are  no  rivers  anywhere  of  such  volume  as  the 
Amazon  and  the  Mississippi. 

What  drains  and  gutters  are  to  the  streets,  and  ditches  to  the  farmer's  low 
grounds,  rivers  are  to  the  country  at  large — they  collect  the  drainage  and 
carrj-  it  off. 

The  proper  study  of  the  rivers  and  the  mountains  and  the  coast-lines  of  a 
country,  simply  as  they  are  delineated  on  the  maps,  is  most  instructive. 

o.  Runnimf  Water. — The  face  of  the  earth  has  been 
made  what  it  is  by  the  influence  of  mountains,  the  agen- 
cies of  rivers,  and  the  action  of  water.  Travel  through 
the  country  where  you  will,  and  you  will  see  in  the 
rounded  pebbles,  in  the  layers  of  rocks  and  soil,  or  in 
the  distribution  of  sand,  evidence  of  this  action. 

Wherefore,  in  studying  a  river  in  its  geographical  aspects,  you  arc  not  to 
consider  so  much  the  width  of  its  channel,  or  the  depth  and  capacity  of  its 
current,  as  you  are  to  study  the  offices  which  the  water,  as  it  rolls  along, 
performs,  and  the  extent  of  country  to  which  it  gives  drainage. 

0.  Furtlier  Offices  of  Itivers.— More  clearly  to  understand  the  of- 
fices of  rivers  in  the  economy  of  nature,  let  us  follow  in  imagination  the 
waters  wliich  feed  them  from  the  time  they  come  from  the  sea  as  vapor  until 
tiiey  return  to  it  again  through  the  river.  It  has  formed  clouds  to  decorate 
tlie  sky  and  screen  the  earth  from  the  heat  as  well  as  cold.  It  has  been  con- 
densed into  rain,  and  refreshed  the  land  with  showers.  It  has  filled  the 
water-veins  in  the  earth  which  feed  the  springs  and  wells,  and  in  doing  that 
it  has  collected  food  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  for  it  has  dissolved  and 
worn  away  the  rocks,  and  torn  off  from  them  the  materials  of  which  sea- 
slielis  and  coral  are  made ;  and  while  it  was  doing  all  tliis,  it  turned  mills, 
drove  machinery,  floated  ships,  and  carried  the  rich  produce  of  our  land  to 
market. 

7.  T7ie  Watershed  of  a  river  is  formed  by  the  sides 
of  the  hills  and  valleys  which  slope  toward  it,  and  from 
which  it  receives  the  drainage.  The  valley,  or  hydro- 
graphic  basin,  of  a  river,  is  the  whole  extent  of  country 
that  is  drained  by  it.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  valley  of 
the  Mi.ssissippi,  or  the  hydrographic  basin  of  the  Ama- 
zon, and  mean  all  that  part  of  the  continent  from  which 
the  waters  run  into  those  rivers. 


The  valleys  of  these  rivers  form  the  two  largest  hydrographic  basins  in 
the  world,  and  as  the  roofs  of  the  largest  houses  require  the  largest  gutters  to 
carry  off  the  water,  so  the  largest  hydrographic  basins  requh'e  the  largest 
rivers  to  drain  them — tlie  rain-fall  being  the  same. 

Thus,  simply  by  looking  at  the  map  and  tracing  out  by  the  eye  the  various 
river  basins,  you  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  Amazon  and  the  Mississippi 
are  the  largest  rivers  in  the  world ;  and  so  they  are. 

So,  also,  you  might  judge  of  the  extent  of  an  unexplored  river  basin  by 
ascertaining  the  volume  of  the  river  through  which  its  water  is  discharged. 

8.  3£ountalns. — America  has  also  the  longest  range 
of  mountains  in  the  world.  The  Andes  take  their  rise 
in  Patagonia,  and  skirting  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  coun- 
try, extend  all  the  way  to  the  isthmus  which  connects 
North  and  South  America,  stooping  down  to  hills  of 
two  or  three  hundred  feet  in  height.  They  rise  up 
again,  as  you  go  north,  until  they  reach  the  grand  pro- 
portions of  the  Sierra  Madre — as  the  range  is  called 
in  Mexico — and  then  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  tlie 
United  States,  the  name  by  which  they  are  known  in 
all  their  northern  extent. 

The  Orogkaphic  View  of  the  United  States,  on  the  next  page,  re- 
veals to  you  at  a  glance  our  great  mountain-systems,  our  valleys  and  hills, 
the  large  divides  and  watersheds,  which  assist  in  giving  direction,  volume, 
and  velocity  to  our  noble  rivers  ;  it  also  shows  our  immense  pi-airies  and 
slopes — in  a  word,  it  presents  us  with  a  miniature  pictorial  model  of  the  face 
of  our  country.     Examine  it  long  and  carefully. 

The  different  tints  of  light  and  shade  represent  the  elevations  and  depres- 
sions of  the  surftice  of  the  country  ;  the  dark  shades  and  tints  show  the  low 
lands  and  deep  valleys;  the  lighter  tints  show  the  higher  lands  and  the 
mountains.— In  the  darker  shades  rivers  are  marked  by  a  white  line;  and  in 
the  lighter  shades  by  &  black  line. 

Questions. — 1.  Why  is  our  geographical  position  important  ?  2.  What 
are  the  northern  and  southern  boundaries  of  the  American  Continent? — 
What  is  the  distance  between  them  ? — How  did  Cape  Horn  get  its  name  V — 
How  many  Zones  does  tlie  Continent  of  America  cross? — Which  of  the  four 
Continents  has  the  greatest  diversity  of  climate  ?  3.  Which  coast  of  Amer- 
ica is  nearly  midway  between  the  western  shores  of  Europe  and  the  eastern 
shores  of  Asia  ? — What  are  the  geographical  circumstances  which  are  des- 
tined to  make  this  Continent  the  most  commercial  and  maritime  of  the  four  ? 
^— What  gives  America  its  great  diversity  of  climate  and  variety  of  produc- 
tions?— What  two  Oceans  bathe  its  eastern  and  western  shores  ? — Which  of 
the  Continents  is  most  abundantly  watered  ? — Which  has  the  least  Desert? 
— Why  is  this  Continent  capable  of  sustaining  a  larger  population  than 
any  of  the  others  ?  How  does  it  compare  with  them  as  to  the  size  of  its 
Lakes  and  Rivers  ?  4.  What  proportion  of  the  fresh  water  in  the  world  do 
the  Great  Lakes  contain  ? — What,  in  a  geographical  point  of  view,  is  the  use 
of  Rivers?  5.  Name  some  of  the  offices  of  water. — Did  you  ever  see  any 
evidences  of  its  action  ?  0.  Tell  what  the  water  in  a  River  has  been  doing 
since  it  left  the  Sea  as  vapor.  7-  What  is  the  Watershed  of  a  River? — A 
Hydrographic  Basin  ? — Trace  out  with  your  finger  on  the  map  the  Hydro- 
graphic  Basin  of  the  Amazon — the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi — the  Ohio — the 
Tennessee — the  Columbia — the  Potomac — the  Orinoco — the  La  Plata. — How, 
by  looking  at  the  map,  can  you  judge  as  to  the  relative  size  of  Rivers  ? — Why 
does  a  large  Watershed  require  a  larger  River  than  a  small  one  to  carry  off 
llie  water  from  it? — Where  are  the  two  largest  Rivers  in  the  world?  8. 
Wliich  Continent  has  the  longest  mountixin  range  ? — Trace  it  out  on  the 
map. — To  which  coast  is  it  nearest  ? — What  names  does  it  assume  ? 

On  Avhich  side  of  the  Oroguapiiic  View  op  the  United  States  do  you 
distinguish  the  loftiest  mountains  ? — On  which  side,  consequently,  do  you  find 
the  longest  and  most  majestic  rivei's  ? — How  is  the  Mississippi  Basin  formed  ? 
Ans.  By  the  slopes  of  the  Alleghany  Mts.  on  one  side,  and  of  the  Rocky 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


31 


Mountains  on  the  other  side.--Do  you  discern  in  the  Orographic  View  a  gen- 
tle elevation  south  of  Lake  Eiie ?  From  the  crest  of  thig,  some  streams  I'un 
northward  inU)  the  Lake,  and  some  southward  into  the  Ohio  River. 

Why  are  the  streams  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  smaller  than  those  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  range  ?— How  are  the  great  Lakes  fed  ?— Judging  by 
the  eye,  which  has  the  most  rain,  the  eastern  or  western  side  of  the  Alleglia- 
nies  ?  Am.  The  western. — Why  is  this  ?  Ans.  Because  the  eastern  side  of 
the  mountains  gets  little  rain  from  the  sea ;  the  prevaUing  winds  are  from 
the  west 


LESSO.Ar   XX. 


A  General  View  of  the  Geography  of  the  United  States. 

1.  Extent. — The  United  States  extend  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  distance  from  sea  to 
sea,  in  a  direct  line  across  the  country,  is  2,100  miles 
in  the  narrowest  and  2,600  in  the  broadest  part. 

In  latitude  the  United  States  extend  from  the  Great 
Lakes  on  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south. 
Further  to  the  west  they  stretch  from  the  confines  of 
Mexico  to  the  British  possessions  on  the  north. 

From  their  extreme  northern  to  their  extreme  southern  limits  they  em- 
brace, including  the  ne.wly-acquired  teriitoiy  of  Alaska,  forty  degrees  of  lati- 
tude ;  but  tlie  clioicest  parts  of  the  United  States  lie  between  the  parallels  of 
twenty-six  degrees  and  forty-nine  degrees. 

2.  Climate  and  Productions. — This  breadth  of 
latitude,  as  you  may  have  inferred  from  the  preceding 
lesson,  is  the  cause  of  a  great  diversity  of  climates  in 
this  country,  with  their  varieties  of  production. 

This  portion  of  the  North  TemperatG  Zone  corresponds  in  climate  and 
productions  to  that  which  is  occupied  in  Europe  by  the  most  enligliten(!d  and 
prosperous  nations  ;  but  Europe  is  not  blessed  with  such  a  variety  of  climate 
and  productions  as  wc  have  here.  Our  groat  staples  of  cotton,  rice,  sugar, 
and  tobacco  cannot  be  cultivated  to  a  profital)lc  extent  in  Europe. 

All  the  great  agricultural  staples  of  commerce,  including  tea,  coffee,  and 
indigo,  are  to  be  found  in  tlie  United  States. 

The  climate  of  Florida  and  the  lands  bordering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is 
semi-tropical.  To  the  north  of  this  belt  we  liave,  either  on  the  plains  or  in 
the  valleys  or  on  the  mountain  slopes,  all  climates  that  are  to  be  found  in 
Europe  between  the  frozen  regions  of  the  North  and  the  sunny  plains  of 
Greece  and  Italy. 

3.  Our  Sea-Fronts  and  Harbors.— On  the  cast, 
■south,  and  west  we  look  out  on  the  sea,  and  American 
waters  arc  more  lavish  with  their  l)ounties  than  those 
of  other  countries.  They  abound  in  excellent  harbors, 
in  which  our  neighbors  are  deficient. 

Nature  lias  placed  in  the  way  of  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  States 
obstacles  which  bar  tliem,  in  a  measure,  from  the  industries  of  the  sea,  and 
tend  to  place  obstructions  in  tlieir  way  as  great  maritime  and  commercial 
powers. 

Nor  are  our  neighbors  on  tlie  nortli  more  favored  in  this  respect  than  our 
neiglibors  on  tlie  south,  for  in  the  dominion  of  Canada  tlie  harbors  are  closed 
annually  with  ice,  and  navigation  suspended  for  many  months;  and  when 
the  harbors  are  free,  their  offings  are  often  beset  with  icebeigs,  and  made 
dangerous  to  the  navigator  by  renson  of  dense  logs ;  whereas  the  harbors  and 
coasts  of  tlie  United  States  are  ever  free  and  open. 

4.  Inland  NavUjation. — Inland,   and    midway   be- 


tween the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  the  Mississippi  River 
flows  from  north  to  south,  receiving  richly-laden  vessels 
from  its  navigable  tributaries  as  they  pour  in  from  the 
east  and  west,  and  giving  to  the  inhabitants  of  its 
valley  a  free  outlet  to  the  sea  for  their  produce  and 
merchandise. 

The  great  Lakes,  from  Superior  to  Ontario,  are  inland 
seas,  which  have  the  commerce  of  an  ocean  and  greatly 
facilitate  trade  and  intercourse  between  the  people  of 
the  neighboring  States. 

.5.  Nearness  to  Market. — With  all  these  advantages  of  geographical 
feature  and  position,  we  are  nearer  to  the  markets  of  Europe  than  are  the 
people  of  either  China  or  .Japan  ;  and  consequently  can  undersell  them  there. 

With  a  canal  through  the  Isthmus  we  shall  also  be  nearer  to  the  markets 
of  China,  Japan,  and  the  East  than  the  merchants  of  Europe  are. 

Thus  you  perceive  that  this  country  occupies  geographically  the  most 
favored  position. 

Questions. — 1.  What  is  the  greatest  distance  in  a  straight  line  across  the 
United  States  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  ?— What  the  least? — 
Across  which  tier  of  States  does  it  run,  the  Northern  or  the  Southern  ? — How 
many  degrees  of  latitude  do  the  United  States,,  with  the  newly-acquired  terri- 
tory of  Alaska,  embrace  ?  2.  To  what  is  the  great  diversity  of  climate  in  the 
United  States  attributable  ? — Why  ai'c  the  United  States  able  to  boast  of  a 
greater  variety  of  production  than  Europe? — Which  of  our  great  agricultural 
staples  cannot  be  profitably  cultivated  tliere?— What  great  staples  of  com- 
merce are  cultivated  in  the  United  States? — In  what  parts  of  the  United 
States  is  the  climate  semi-tropical? — In  the  other  parts  what  are  the  cli- 
mates? tf.  Why,  commercially  speaking,  is  the  geographical  position  of  the 
United  Slates  more  advantageous  than  that  of  any  other  continental  power? — ■ 
Compare  the  United  States  with  the  countries  immediately  to  the  North  and 
South  with  regard  to  harbors. — Why  are  Mexico  and  the  Central  American 
States  never  likely  to  become  great  maritime  and  commercial  powers?  4. 
Can  you  name  any  other  circumstances  besides  those  which  you  have  already 
mentioned,  which  tend  to  make  the  geograi)liical  position  of  the  United  States 
so  favorable?  .5.  Why  should  American  merchants  be  able  to  undersell  Euro- 
pean merchants  in  the  markets  of  China  and  Japan? 


LESSOJV  XXI. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  the  United  States. 

Coii/if/itration  and  Honndaries. — Point  out  on  the  map,  the  broad- 
est and  the  narrowest  part  of  the  United  States. — Between  what  parallels  of 
latitude  do  the  United  States  lie? — Between  what  political  divisions  do  they 
Vw'i — How  are  the  United  States  separated  from  the  British  provinces? — 
Name  the  four  great  Lakes  that  lie  between  the  United  States  and  the  Can- 
adas. — Name  the  Rivers  or  Straits  that  connect  these  Lakes  one  with  another. 
— Is  there  any  natural  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  ? — 
What  ? 

The  boundary  line,  you  observe,  runs  tlu'ough  the  middle  of  these  Lakes  and 
Rivers,  thus  showing  that  they  belong  equally  to  England  and  to  us ;  and  that 
the  navigation  of  them  is  alike  free  to  both  nations. 

Mountains. — Point  out  the  principal  mountain  chains  between  which 
the  Mississippi  valley  lies. — On  which  side  of  this  valley  are  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains?— On  which  the  AUeghanies? 

Rivers. — Where  does  the  Mississippi  River  ri.se  ? — Which  way  does  it 
flow,  and  where  does  it  empty? — Measuring  in  a  straight  line,  according  to 


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34 


SUBDIVISIONS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


the  scale  on  the  map,  what  is  the  length  of  the  Mississippi  from  north  to 
south  ? — Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  it  flow  ? — Which  is  its 
largest  tributary  from  the  west  ? — What  from  tlie  east  ? 

You  observe  that  the  Mississippi  River  is  less  crooked  than  the  Missouri ; 
the  latter  flows  east  through  Montana  into  Dakota  and  then  southeast  to  its 
juncture  with  the  Mississippi  at  St  Louis.  Measuring  in  like  manner  in  a 
straight  line  from  the  source  to  the  bend  in  Dakota,  and  then  to  its  mouth,  how 
long  is  the  Missouri?  From  its  junction  up,  which  drains  the  largest  valley, 
it  or  the  Mississippi  ? — Which  drains  the  largest  valley,  the  Ohio  or  the  Mis- 
sissippi— above  their  junction? 

You  observe  in  California  an  inland  range  of  mountains,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  (snowy  mountains),  witli  a  Coast  Range  in  front,  flanked  in  Oregon 
and  Washington  by  the  Cascade  Range,  and  that  tlie  valley  between  the 
Nevada  range  and  the  Rocky  mountains  is  very  broad.  In  this  valley  lies 
the  Great  Inland  Basin  of  the  Continent.  It  has  no  sea-drainage,  and  in  it 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  other  lakes  of  like  quality  are  found. 

Remember  this  as  a  general  rule :  All  lakes  that  ham  no  outlet  are  salt. 

What  rivers  rise  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ? — Which  way  do  they 
flow  ? — Which  of  them  is  the  longest,  measuring  in  a  straight  line  from  source 
to  mouth  ? — Repeat  the  general  rule  about  salt  lakes. — Why  do  you  call  a 
part  of  the  valley  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  an 
inland  basin  ? — What  is  the  meaning  of  Sierra  Nevada  ? 

Bays,  Straits,  Gulfs,  Capes. — Name  the  bays  along  the  Atlantic 
shores  of  the  United  States ;  the  straits;  the  gull's;  the  capes ;  the  peninsu- 
las.— Where  are  the  Bahama  Islands  ? — What  large  river  drains  the  great 
lakes  ? — What  large  river  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ? — Describe  the  course 
of  each. — What  range  of  mountains  runs  parallel  with  the  Atlantic  coast  ? 

Name  the  gulfs  and  bays  along  tlie  Pacific  coast  of  North  America. — 
Name  the  straits,  capes,  and  islands. — Name  tlie  two  largest  American  rivers 
that  empty  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. — What  chains  of  mountains  run  parallel 
with  the  Pacific  coast  ? 

Name  the  principal  islands  and  capes  along  the  Ai-ctic  shores  of  North 
America. — The  bays,  sounds,  and  gulfs. 

What  large  river  empties  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  ? — Describe  its  course. — 
Which  is  the  largest,  British  America  or  the  United  States,  judging  by  the 
eye  ? — Mexico  or  the  United  States  ? — Which  of  these  three  divisions  abounds 
most  in  lakes  and  islands,  and  indentations  along  the  sea-shore  ? 

States. — Beginning  with  the  most  northerly,  name,  in  order,  the  thirteen 
Atlantic  States  and  their  capitiils. — Mention  in  the  same  way  the  States  bor- 
dering on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. — The  States  and  territories  on  the  Pacific. — 
Name  the  eight  States  on  the  Great  Lakes. — What  State  is  partly  bounded 
by  the  St.  Lawrence  river  ? — What  States  touch  British  America  ? — What 
territories  lie  contiguous  to  Mexico  ? 

Koutes. — What  States  and  rivers  would  you  cross  in  going  directly  from 
New  York  to  Chicago  ? — What  States,  territories,  and  rivers  would  you  cross 
in  going  directly  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  ? — From  Washington  to 
Charleston  ? — Should  you  take  a  steamboat  at  Pittsburg  for  St.  Louis,  on  what 
rivers  and  near  what  States  would  you  pass  ? — In  going  from  Pittsburg  to  New 
Orleans  by  steamboat,  what  States  would  you  see  ? — Sliould  you  sail  from 
Portland,  in  Maine,  to  Galveston,  Texas,  what  Stiites,  bays,  and  gulfs  would 
you  pass  ?— What  islands  and  capes  ?— Sailing  from  Alaska  to  San  Francisco, 
what  capes,  islands,  and  States  would  you  pass  ? — How  would  you  go  by 
steamer  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  ?  Ans.  By  the  way  of  Aspinwall, 
where  you  would  cross  the  isthmus  on  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  take  an- 
other steamer  from  Panama  to  San  Francisco.' 

Through  what  river-valley  would  you  pass  in  going  by  steamboat  from 


New  Orleans  to  St.  Paul  ?— How  would  you  go  to  Omaha  by  steamboat  from 
New  Orleans? — How,  by  the  same  means,  would  you  go  to  ]\Iobile ?— To 
Louisville?— To  Fernandma,  Florida?— To  El  Paso,  Mexico?— To  Austin? 


LESSOJV  XXII. 

The   Political  Subdivisions  of  the  United   States. 

1.  The  Census. — A  census  is  taken  by  the  general 
government  of  the  United  States  once  every  ten  years. 
By  the  census  of  1860,  the  population  was  ni, 443, 321  : 
by  that  of  1870,  it  was  nearly  39,000.000.  This 
r.iakes  the  United  States  more  populous  than  any  of 
the  European  nations,  except  Russia  and  Germany. 

The  population  of  GriMt  niit.iin  is  37,000,000;  of  France,  35,000.000;  of 
Russia,  in  Europe,  69,000,000;  and  of  the  new  German  Empire,  4."), 000,000. 

2.  States,  Territories,  e^c— The  United  States  con- 
sist of  thirty-eight  States  and  ten  Territories,  which 
are  variously  divided  into  groups  or  sections  for  the 
convenience  of  reference. 

3.  JJi  vis  ions.— The  ordinary  grouping  of  these  thirty- 
eight  States  and  ten  Territories,  is  this  : 

1st.  The  six  New  England,  or  Easxni  States, — Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Connecticut. 

2d.  The  five  Middle  /States, — New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland,  with  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia. 

3d.  The  eleven  Southern  States, — Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Fh^-ida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Tennessee, 
with  the  Territories,  New  Mexico  and  Indian  Territory. 

4th.  The  thirteen  Western  States, — West  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Mis- 
souri, Iowa,  Wi.'sconsin,  Minnesota,  Ncbra.ska,  Kansus, 
Colorado,  with  the  Territories,  Wyoming,  Dakota,  and 
Montana. 

5th.  The  three  Pacific  States, — California,  Nevada, 
and  Oregon,  with  the  Territories  of  Washington,  Idaho, 
Utah,  Arizona,  and  Alaska. 

By  a  more  natural  classification,  we  might  group  the  States  as  the  At- 
lantic, the  Gulf,  tlie  Inland,  tiie  Lake,  and  the  Pacific  States. 

We  also  speak  of  the  Valley  States,  meaning  those  that  are  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley;  or  the  Cotton  States,  meaning  those  in  which  cotton  is  the 
principal  stiiple,  as  Texas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia, 
and  South  Carolina. 

Questions. — 1.  What  is  the  Census?  What  was  the  population  of  llie 
United  States  in  18T0  ? — How  does  it  compare  with  tlie  population  of  Eng 
land?— How  with  that  of  France ?— of  Russia ?  2.  How  many  States  and 
territories  are  there?  3.  How  many  and  what  sectional  divisions  are  there? 
— Name  the  States  and  Territories  of  each  section. — Wliat  other  groupings 
are  sometimes  made? — Point  out  (m  Map  of  United  States  all  the  above- 
named  States  and  Territories. — Bound  them  in  order. 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES. 


35 


LESSOJV  XXIII. 

Tho  New  England  States. 

Total  Population,  3,487,924. 


State. 


Maine 

New  Hiinipsliire. 

Vermont 

Massachusetts  . . . 


Rhode  Island. 
Connecticut . . 


Capitals. 


Chief  Cities  and  their 
Population. 


Augusta Portland 31,413 

Concord Manchester 23,.')3G 

Montpelier :  Burlington 14,387 

Boston Boston 250,526 

(  Providence / 


/  Newport f 

Hartford. 


Providence 08,904 

New  Haven....    50,840 


1.  Map  Study. — The  most  lively  impressions  as  to 
the  geojrraphy  of  a  country  are  to  be  obtained  by 
travelling"  over  it  ;  but  this  cannot  always  be  done,  and 
the  best  ideas  that  we  can  obtain  as  to  all  except  the 
Political  Geography  of  a  country,  are  to  be  obtained 
from  the  map.  Study  the  maps  ;  look  at  them  often  and 
attentively,  and  you  will  soon  get  the  sections  of  the 
country  fixed  in  your  mind  as  indelibly  as  your  play- 
ground and  gymnasium. 

Let  us,  therefore,  begin.to  study,  with  the  map  before 
us.  the  geography  of  the  six  New  England  States. 

They  are  situated  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
United  States,  between  the  parallels  of  41°  and  47°  20' 
north  latitude.  They  are  nearer  to  Europe  than  any 
other  part  of  the  United  States.  "  They  are  small  States. 
The  six  put  together  are  not  as  large  as  Missouri,  nor 
one-third  the  size  of  Texas  ;  but,  according  to  area  and 
population,  they  have  more  power  in  Congress  than  any 
other  part  of  the  United  States  twice  their  size.  They  are 
bounded — See  Map — on  the  west  by  the  State  of  New 
York,  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Rhode  Island 
is  the  smallest  State  of  the  Union. 

Rhode  Island  has  two  Capitals. 

2.  Coast  iHflentations. — One  of  the  first  things  that 
strike  the  eye  of  the  geographer,  as  he  turns  it  for  the 
first  time  upon  a  map  of  these  States,  is  the  very  jagged 
appearance  of  their  coast-line,  especially  of  Maine,  and 
the  number  of  rocky  islets  which  curtain  the  shores — 
sure  signs  that  there  is  no  lack  of  dee})  water  and  good 
harbors. 

The  New  England  States  are,  as  you  might  therefore 
infer,  ridi  in  harbors,  bays,  «ipes,  and  islands,  for  this 
is  shown  by  a  glance  at  the  map. 

Vermont  is  the  only  one  of  the  New  England  States 
that  has  no  sea- front. 


3.  Lakes  and  Mivers. — Another  striking  feature 
also  most  prominent  in  Maine,  is  the  number  of  fresh- 
water lakes  that  dot  its  surface,  as  well  as  the  number 
of  small  streams  which,  in  all  the  States  of  this  section, 
thread  their  way  from  the  hills  to  the  sea. 

Some  of  these  rivers  flow  west  into  Lake  Champlain, 
some  north  into  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  but  most  of  them 
run  east  and  south,  and  empty  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Thus  the  New  England  States,  in  their  orography, 
are  like  a  "  hipped-roof  house"  which  sheds  the  water 
off  in  four  directions,  their  largest  watershed  sloping 
toward  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

4.  "  Orogrftj}hf/"  means  the  irregularities  of  tho  earth's  surface  up  and 
down,  or  in  the  vertical  way.  You  have  already  seen  an  Orographic  View 
of  the  United  States,    (p.  30.) 

.5.  Mountains. — Now  when  we  remember  that,  after 
those  of  North  Carolina,  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
"Atlantic  States"  are  in  the  New  England  States 
(Mount  Washington,  White  Mountains,  New  Hamp- 
shire, 6,234  feet  ;  Mount  Mitchell,  a  peak  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  North  Carolina,  6,770  feet  high),  and  when  we 
consider  how  close  the  mountains  and  highlands  of  New 
England  are  to  the  sea,  we  may  understand  that  the 
streams  which  flow  thence  to  the  sea  have  a  great  de- 
scent, with  rapid  currents  and  falls  sufficient  to  afford 
abundance  of  water-power. 

0.  Facilities  for  Mills  and  Factories. — Such  is 
the  case :  and  the  New  Englanders  recognizing  the 
force  of  those  principles  which  regulate  the  geographical 
distribution  of  labor,  have  erected  mills,  factories,  and 
manufacturing  establishments  along  the  Ijanks  of  these 
streams.  They  have  invoked  the  aid  of  this  power, 
and  made  it  subservient  to  their  purposes. 

7.  Mauufacturiuff  Totvus.  —  Fall  River,  Lowell, 
Lawrence,  Manchester,  Springfield,  Nashua,  with  many 
other  places,  are  celebrated  for  their  water-power  and 
for  their  manufacturing  industry. 

The  New  England  States  have  no  coal-mines,  and 
their  hills  are  poor  in  metallic  ores. 

8.  Climate. — Their  winter  climate,  though  they  front 
on  the  sea,  is  very  cold.  The  sea  there,  however,  is 
never  frozen,  and  the  harbors  very  seldom  closed,  not 
because  the  weather  is  not  cold  enough,  but  because  the 
sea  is  so-  deep  and  the  tides  so  rapid.  Therefore,  even 
in  the  severest  weather,  its  waters,  on  account  of  their 
depth,  are  comparatively  warm. 

Because  the  waters  are  warmer  than  the  air,  the  coast 
of  New  England  is  not  so  cold  as  the  interior. 


MAINE. 


You  know  that  the  water  from  a  deep  well  or  a  good  spring  is  cool  in 
summer,  warm  in  winter.  It  only  appears  so  because  in  winter  tlie  weather 
is  colli  and  in  summer  it  is  warm,  while  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the 
well  or  spring  is  nearly  the  same  in  winter  as  in  summer. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  winds  which  blow  over  large  bodies  of  water 
are  cool  in  summer,  warm  in  winter. 

.9.  Prevailing  Winds.  —  The  prevailing  winter 
winds  in  New  England  are  from  the  land,  not  from  the 
sea.  They  are  consequentlj^  dry  and  cold  ;  the  weather, 
therefore,  is  often  bitterly  severe.  But  when  the  wind 
comes  from  the  sea,  as  it  sometimes  does,  it  makes 
damp,  foggy,  and  disagreeable  weather,  especially  in 
winter,  late  autumn,  and  early  spring.  Moreover,  the 
winters  there,  besides  being  severe,  are,  by  reason  of 
the  latitude,  long,  while  the  summers  are  short.  Con- 
sequently the  soil  yields  scantily,  and  agriculture  is  by 
no  means  the  most  profitable  branch  of  industry  that 
the  inhabitants  of  a  country  so  favored  with  watcr- 
l)ower,  so  blessed  with  harbors,  so  convenient  to  the 
sea  with  its  bounties,  and  so  rich  in  timber  for  ship- 
building, may  pursue. 

10.  Resources  and  Industries. — The  agricultural 
labor  of  New  England  does  not  yield  food  enough  for 
home  consumption.  But  they  gather  abundant  harvests 
from  the  sea  and  its  fisheries. 

With  the  severe  climate  and  stingy  soil  on  one  hand 
to  make  agriculture  uninviting,  and  with  their  forests 
of  ship-timber,  their  capacious  harbors,  their  water- 
power,  and  sea-fisheries  to  attract  on  the  other,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  the  sons  of  New  England  should  have  re- 
sorted to  these  industries,  for  they  find  in  them  am})le 
rewards  for  the  labor  and  hardihood  which  they  demand. 

11.  Fisheries.  —  Marblehead, 
Newburyport,  and  Gloucester  are  the 
chief  towns  that  are  engaged  in  the 
fisheries  ;  they  are  all  three  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  their  fishing-grounds 
for  cod  and  mackerel  are  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland. 

These  they  salt  and  dry,  and  then 
bring  them  home,  and  afterward  send 
them  to  all  parts  of  the  world — 
especially  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  where  the  people  during 
Lent  eat  no  other  animal  food. 

Thus  the  people  of  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  consulting  the  geographi- 
cal position  of  their  section  in  con- 
nection with  its  natural  resources, 
have    made    lumbering,    shipbuild- 


ing, ice-harvesting,  seafaring,  and  manufacturing  their 
most  important  industries. 

Questions— 1.  What  can  you  learn  from  maps  ?— How  large  are  the  six 
New  England  States  ?— Where  are  they  situated  ?— Between  what  parallels 
of  latitude  do  they  lie?— How  are  they  bounded  ?—Whicli  is  the  smallest 
State  in  the  Union  V— How  does  their  jjower  in  Congress  compare  according 
to  and  in  proportion  with  other  parts  of  tlie  Union?  2.  What  is  the  most 
striking  feature  presented  by  tlie  map  of  these  States  ?— Which  of  Uiese 
States  has  the  longest  sea-coast  and  the  best  articulated  coast-line  ?— What 
geographical  conclusion  do  you  derive  from  these  indentiitions  of  shore-line? 

3.  What  striking  feature  in  the  land  do  you  observe  on  the  map  of  the  New 
England  States  ?— To  what  can  you  liken  the  watersheds  presented  by  these 
States  ?— Which  way  do  they  slope  ?— Where  do  the  rivers  from  them  empty  ? 

4.  What  is  the  Ovocjraphy  of  a  country  ?  5.  What,  where,  and  how  high 
is  the  loftiest  mountain  of  New  England  ?— Is  it  the  highest  mountain  in 
the  Atlantic  States  ?  6.  What  effect  have  the  hills  of  New  England  and  their 
distance  from  the  sea  upon  the  industry  of  these  States  ?  7.  What  and  where 
are  the  most  famous  manufacturing  towns  of  New  England  ?— IIow  do  you 
account  for  its  mild  coast  climate  ?  H,  Does  the  sea  freeze  off  the  coast  of 
New  England  ?  U.  Wliy  are  the  winters  in  New  England  long  and  the 
summers  short  ?  10.  Can  you  explain  why  the  industries  of  New  England 
are  rather  commercial  and  manufacturing  than  mining  ;  seafaring,  than 
agricultural  ?  11.  Name  three  of  the  principal  fishing  towns  in  New  Eng- 
land.— Point  them  out  on  the  map. — Where  are  their  principal  fishing- 
grounds  ? — Where  are  their  fish  markets  ? — What  are  the  chief  industries  of 
the  New  England  States  ? 


LESSOM  xir. 

The  New  England  States — Gontmued. 

Maine. 

Maine  excels  in  shipbuilding,  the  lumber-trade,  and 
the  harvesting  and  export  of  ice.  The  timber  is  cut 
during  the  winter,  hauled  in  the  frozen  snow  to  the 
banks  of  the  streams,  upon  which  it  is  launched   and 


lOE-BA  BVEBTINO. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE.— MASSACHUSETTS.— RHODE  ISLAND.— CONNECTICUT.— VERMONT. 


37 


floated  down  in  the  spring.  Most  of  it  is  drifted  down 
the  Penobscot  river  to  Bangor,  whence  it  is  exported  ; 
but  much  of  it  finds  its  way  to  Bath  and  other  seaport 
towns  which  are  celebrated  for  their  himber-trade  and 
shipbuilding.  The  fine  ships  that  they  send  thence  to 
help  cSrrj  on  the  commerce  of  the  world,  have  spread 
the  fame  of  the  New  England  shipwrights  along  the 
sea-coasts  of  all  countries. 

Portland  is  the  principal  seaport  of  Maine.  It  is  in 
railway  connection  with  Canada.  A  vast  amount  of 
the  direct  trade  between  Canada  and  England  is  car- 
ried on  through  Portland.  Emigrants  and  travellers 
from  England  to  Canada  often,  especially  in  winter,  go 
through  Portland,  and  frequently  through  Boston. 

New  Hampshire. 

This  State  has  only  a  few  miles  of  sea-front,  and  her 
people  are  not  given  to  seafaring  so  much  as  those  of 
Maine  and  Massachusetts,  which  have  extensive  lines 
of  sea-coast. 

The  people  are  extensively  engaged  in  her  quarries 
of  stone,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woollen 
goods.  Manchester,  Nashua.  Dover,  with  other  towns, 
prosper  in  this  business. 

Portsmouth,  on  the  Piscataqua  [pis-hat' a-kwah)  river, 
is  the  only  seaport  town  in  New  Hampshire.  It 
has  a  splendid  man-of-war  harbor,  upon  wiiich,  just 
across  the  border,  at  Kittery "  in  Maine,  the  United 
States  have  one  of  their  finest  navy-yards.  Hanover 
is  the  seat  of  Dartmouth  College. 

Massachusetts, 

Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut  are  more  extensively 
engaged  than  any  other  States  in  manufacturing.  More 
than  one-third  of  all  the  woollen,  cotton,  and  leather 
goods  that  are  manufactured  in  the  United  States  are 
manufactured  in  these  three  States, 

Boston  is  the  commercial  emporium  and  pride  of 
New  England.  This  famous  city  is  situated  on  a  fine 
harbor  in  Massachusetts.  Yielding  to  New  York  in 
commercial  importance,  it  boasts  of  rich  merchants  and 
much  capital,  and  vies  with  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore 
in  foreign  trade. 

The  largest  and  most  celebrated  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments 11  Massachusetts  are  at  Lowell  and  Lawrence, 
famous  for  their  woollen  and  cotton  goods.  The  United 
States  have  their  most  extensive  armory  at  Springfield, 
where  muskets  and  other  small  arms,  for  the  public 
service,  are  made.     Lynn  is  celebrated  for  shoemaking. 


New  Bedford  and  Nantucket  are  largely  engaged  in  the 
whale  and  other  deep-sea  fisheries. 

Ehode  Island. 

Newport,  in  Rhode  Island,  is  situated  on  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  in  New  England.  It  is  a  noted  watering- 
place,  where  the  sea-bathing  in  summer  is  exceedingly 
fine.  The  largest  manufacturing  establishments  in 
Rhode  Island  are  in  Providence,  where  there  are 
extensive  cotton  factories. 

Connecticut. 

Connecticut  is  especially  famous  for  the  manufacture 
of  small  wares,  such  as  clocks,  sewing-machines,  pistols, 
hooks  and  eyes  for  ladies'  dresses,  etc.  There  are 
large  establishments  in  Bridgeport  for  the  manufacture 
of  sewing-machines,  and  one  in  Hartford  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fire-arms. 


SEWING-MACHINE     WORKS. 


Yale  College,  at  New  Haven,  Harvard  in  Massachu- 
setts, Princeton  in  New  Jersey,  and  William  and  Mary 
in  Virginia,  are  the  oldest  colleges  in  the  country. 

New  London  and  Stonington,  on  Long  Island  Sound, 
are  engaged  in  whale-fisheries. 

Vermont. 

Vermont  is  an  inland  State  ;  it  is  therefore  cut  off 
from  the  sea  and  its  marts  ;  consequently  the  industrial 
pursuits  of  Vermont  are  more  or  less  different  from 
those  of  her  five  sister  States,  for  they  can  be  neither 
commercial,  seafaring,  nor  fishing. 

In  Vermont,  grazing  seems  to  be  the  most  important 
branch  of  industry.  Vermont  is  famed  for  her  horses, 
and  has  fine  quarries  of  marble  and  slate.  Both 
she  and  New  Hampshire  are  also  fine  wool-growing 
countries. 

Note. — Common  schools  are  more  general  in  New  England  than  they  are 
in  any  other  section  of  the  United  States. 

Their  best  endowed  and  most  renowned  institutions  of  learning  are: 
Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.;    Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn. ; 


72  Longitude  VTast    71   from  Greenwich. 


Longitude  East      0      from  \Va.sliinffti>n 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    NEW    ENGLAND.— THE    MIDDLE    STATES. 


39 


Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I. ;   Middlebury  College,  Vt.  ;  and  Dart- 
mouth College,  N.  H.     The  University  of  Vermont  is  in  Burlington. 

Questions. — What  is  the  principal  branch  of  industiy  in  Maine? — At 
what  season  of  the  year  is  the  timber  gathered  ? — What  are  the  chief  seaport 
towns  in  this  State  ? — What,  the  shipbuilding  places  ? — Where  is  Portland  ? — 
What  business  is  done  through  it  ? 

What  are  the  principal  branches  of  industiy  in  New  Hampshire  ? — Why 
are  they  not  connected  with  the  sea  as  extensively  as  Maine  and  Massachu- 
setts?— How  does  the  coast-line  of  New  Hampshire  compare  with  theirs  as  to 
extent? — How  many  seaport  towns  has  New  Hampshire  ? — What  great  pub- 
lic establishment  is  situated  on  Portsmouth  harbor  ? — Point  out  some  of  the 
principal  manufacturing  towns  in  this  State. 

Which  three  of  the  New  England  States  are  most  extensively  engaged  in 
the  business  of  manufacturing  ? — What  and  where  is  the  commercial  empo- 
liimi  of  New  England  ?  —  Where  are  the  most  extensive  manufacturing 
establishments  in  New  England? — Name  the  principal  wares  that  are  manu- 
factuied  at  each. 

In  what  industries  arc  New  Bedford,  New  London,  and  Nantucket  largely 
engaged? — Whei-e  is  Newport,  and  what  is  it  famous  for? — For  what  class  of 
wares  is  Connecticut  especially  celebrated  ? — Name  the  oldest  institutions  of 
learning  in  the  United  States. — Where  are  they? — Whj^  do  the  industries 
of  Vermont  differ  from  those  of  the  other  New  England  States  ? — For  what 
class  of  industries  is  Vermont  most  noted  ? — Name  the  chief  colleges  and 
univereities  ni  New  England. — Tell  the  capital  and  chief  city  of  each  State. — 
Population  of  chief  city  in  each  State. 


LESSOjY  XXV. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  New  England. 

Honndnries. — How  are  the  New  England  States  bounded? — Bound 
each  one  separately.— Which  one  has  the  greatest  length  of  sea-coast  "r 

Water  Divisions. — Name  the  principal  bays,  capes,  and  islands  along 
tlic  coast. — Wliat  Rivers  have  their  rise  in  the.  New  England  States,  and 
tlieir  mouth  in  the  British  possessions  ? — What,  judging  by  the  eye  and  accord- 
ing to  the  valleys,  are  the  largest  Rivers  in  Maine  ? — Which  is  the  longest 
River  in  the  New  England  States  ? — Where  does  this  River  rise  ? — Which  way 
docs  it  flow  ? — Where  does  it  empty  ? — What  River  rises  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains? 

Mountains. —  The  White  Mountains  are  a  cluster  of  high  peaks  in  New 
Hampshire,  of  whidi  Mount  Washington  is  the  highest.  Tliey  are  an  offsliool  or 
spur  of  tlie  Oreen  Mountains,  in  Vermont,  which  are  a  branch  of  the  AUeghanies, 
that  take  their  rise  in  Georgia  and  skirt  the  Atlantic  sea-hoard  all  tlie  way  until 
tliey  end  in  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont,  and  are  cut  off  by  the  St.  Law- 
rence in  Canada. 

Note. — The  Rivem  of  New  England,  for  reasons  already  explained,  liavc 
a  rapid  fall,  and  therefore  none  of  them  are  navigable  any  great  distance, 
althouj?h  the  tides  I'ise  to  a  great  height  along  the  New  England  coast. 

Trace  the  irregular  line  which,  in  the  New^  England  States,  divides  the 
watershed  of  the  Atlantic  from  the  watershed  of  the  St  Lawrence. 

T7*c  Divide. —  You  observe  that  all  tfie  Rivers  on  one  side  of  this  line  flow 

for  the  most  part  in  a  southwardly  direction' while  those^on  the  otlier  side  flow 

northwardly. 

This  line,  you  must  remember,  is  called  the  "  divide"  between  the  two 
watersheds. 

Note. — You  discover,  also,  that  it  is  among  the  valleys  in  the  upper  and 
middle  parts  of  these  watenheds,  that  Lakes  most  abound. 

Tjaken  serve  an  important  office  as  reservoirs  or  cisterns  for  receiving 


the  water  during  floods,  or  in  periods  of  heavy  rains,  and  distributing  it 
gradually,  by  evaporatio*  in  times  of  drought. 

Look  at  the  map  and  tell  which  are  the  largest  Lakes.  Which  of  the  New 
England  Lakes  has  outlets  to  the  sea  through  the  St.  Croix  ?  The  Penob- 
scot ?  The  Kennebec  ?  The  Androscoggin  ?  The  St.  Johns  ?  The  Mer- 
rimac  ?  The  Richelieu  {ree-she-lu')  ?  Tlie  St.  Francis  ?  Where  are  the  two 
last  named  rivei-s  ?    To  which  watershed  do  they  belong  ? 

What  lake  borders  on  Vermont  and  New  York  ? — What  is  the  distance 
from  the  head  of  Lake  George  to  the  head  of  Richelieu  River  ? 

Capitals. — Name  the  Capitals  of  each  of  the  New  England  States. — 

Tell  upon  what  river,  and  upon  which  bank  of  the  river — right  or  left — they 

are  situated. 

{Remember,  the  right  or  left  bank  of  every  river  is  tlte  right  or  left  hand  side 
of  that  river  as  one  descends  it.) 

What  is  the  coui-se  and  distance  of  each  one  of  these  Capitals  from 
Boston? — How  far,  and  in  what  direction,  is  each  Capital  from  the  centre 
of  the  State  ? 

Chief  Towns. — What  is  the  chief  town  in  each  of  these  States  ? — De- 
scribe its  situation. — Where  is  Cambridge? — Bath?— Bangor? — Lawrence? 
— Lowell  ? — Newburyport  ? — Lynn  ? — Gloucester  ? — Marble  Head  ? — Spring- 
field ? — New  Bedford? — Nantucket? — Tell  what  each  one  is  noted  for. 

Routes  for  Travellers. — How  would  you  go  from  Boston  to  Lowell  ? 
—From  Boston  to  Hartford?— To  Lynn  ?— To  New  Bedford?— To  New 
London  ? — To  Manchester  ?— To  Montreal  ? 

How  would  you  go  from  Providence  to  New  Haven  ? — From  New  York 
to  Brattleboro  ? — From  Hartford  to  New  York  by  steamboat  ? — From  Con- 
cord to  Boston? — From  New  York  to  Rutland  by  railroad? — From  Man- 
chester to  Providence  ? — From  New  York  to  Boston  by  water  ? 

Questions. — Can  you  explain  any  use  of  lakes  in  physical  economy  ? — 
What  is  llie  right  bank  of  a  river? — Are  the  rivers  of  New  England  naviga- 
ble for  great  distances?  —  Why  not? — Of  what  mountains  are  the  White 
Mountains  a  spur? — Of  what  are  the  Green  Mountains  a  branch? — Where 
do  the  AUeghanies  begin  ? — What  is  the  highest  peak  of  the  White  Mountains  ? 


LESSOJY'  XXVI. 

The  Middle  States. 

Total  Population,  9,848,255. 


State. 


New  York. 


New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

■District  of  Columbia . 


Capital;^. 


Albany... . . 

Trenton  . . . 
Harrisburg. 

Dover 

Annapolis  . 


Chief  Cities  and  their 
Population. 


(New  York 942,293 

/  Brooklyn 396,009 

Newark 105,059 

Philadelphia 674,032 

Wilmington 30,841 

Baltimore 267,354 

Washington 109,199 


1.  Geof/rapJilcal  Features.  —  Always  keeping  the 
map  before  you,  let  us  now  proceed  to  gather  from  it 
.some  idea  as  to  the  principal  geographical  features  of 
these  five  States,  with  the  District  of  Columbia,  (p.  45.) 

You  see  that  they  are  traversed  by  the  Alleghany 


40 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    MIDDLE    STATES. 


Mountains,  which  run  from  southwest  to  northeast, 
nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  and  that  these  mountains 
are  divided  into  ridges,  which  lie  parallel  with  each 
other  ;  the  distance  between  the  top  of  the  eastern  and 
the  western  range  varying  from  50  or  60  to  100  miles, 
or  more. 

These  mountains  divide  these  States  into  two  grand 
watersheds,  one  of  which  slopes  toward  the  southeast, 
and  carries  the  drainage  off  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ; 
and  the  other  to  the  northwest,  with  drainage  both 
for  the  great  Lakes,  by  numerous  small  streams,  and 
for  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
rivers. 

You  observe,  therefore,  that  the  Middle  States  lie 
partly  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  partly  in  the  basin  of 
the  great  Lakes,  and  partly  along  the  Atlantic  slopes. 

You  notice,  also,  by  the  rivers,  that  there  are  here 
and  there  gaps  in  the  mountains,  through  which  the 
waters  break  and  pass  from  one  side  to  the  other 

Thus  the  head-waters,  both  of  the  Delaware  and  the 
Susquehanna,  rise  beyond  what  appears  to  be  the  crest 
of  the  AUeghanies,  and  passing  through  a  gap  in  these 
mountains,  find  their  way  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

These  water-gaps,  as  they  are  called,  are  found  in  all 
mountainous  countries  ;  and  sometimes  the  scenery 
about  them  is  very  beautiful,  wild,  and  grand. 

2.  Position. — The  Middle  States  lie  between  the 
parallels  of  38°  and  45°  ;  they  embrace  seven  degrees 
of  latitude,  and  extend  several  degrees  farther  to  the 
south  than  the  New  England  States  do  ;  consequently 
their  climates  are  milder,  their  agricultural  productions 
more  varied,  and  many  of  their  chief  industrial  pursuits 
different. 

3.  Size. — New  York  is  the  largest  and  Delaware  the 
smallest  of  the  Middle  States. 

New  York  alone  is  three-fourths  the  size  of  all  the 
New  England  States  put  together  ;  while  all  the  Middle 
States  together  are  about  half  the  size  of  Texas. 

4.  Coast-Line. — The  coast-line  of  the  New  England 
States — especially  of  Maine — is,  as  you  remember,  of 
rock,  while  that  of  the  Middle  States  is  chiefly  of  loam. 

5.  Allufial  Country. — In  one  section  tlie  sea  is  encroaching  upon 
the  land,  and  has  worn  the  shore  away  to  the  soUd  rocks  ;  in  the  other  the 
land  is  encroaching  upon  the   sea,  and  is  gaining  upon  it  continually. 

The  seaboard  of  the  Middle  States,  and  of  all  the  country  to  the  south,  is 
formed  in  pait  of  what  the  sea  has  cast  up,  and  in  part  of  what  the  rivers 
liave  brought  down  from  the  mountains.  It  is  therefore  an  alluvial  country. 
Every  rain  muddies  the  rivers,  and  these  muddy  waters  flow  into  the  sea;  there 
the  mud  settles  and  gradually  forms  land.  A  large  portion  of  the  best  and  rich- 
est countries  of  the  world  are  alluvial ;  that  is,  the  soil  has  been  brought  down 


little  by  little,  by  waters  from  the  hills.  The  meadows  and  low  grounds  along 
the  margins  of  the  brooks  and  streams  are  alluvial. 

6.  Alluvial    Country   in  the   United  *Sto«es.— The 

extent  of  this  alluvial  country  in  the  United  States  in- 
creases as  3'ou  go  south  ;  following  the  coast-line  until 
you  get  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  it  extends  far 
up  on  both  sides  of  that  river,  and  embraces  large  por- 
tions of  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  The  coral,  the  sea- 
shells,  and  other  marine  fossils  found  there,  show  that 
there,  also,  the  sea  once  roHod  its  waves.  (Map,  p.  32.) 

The  inland  limits  of  tide-waters  are  marked  by  falls 
or  rapids,  as  those  of  the  Schuylkill  at  Philadelphia,  of 
the  Patuxent  near  Baltimore,  of  the  Potomac  at  G-eorge- 
town,  of  the  Rappahannock  at  Fredericksburg,  of  the 
James  at  Richmond,  of  the  Roanoke  at  Weldon,  and  so 
on  along  the  whole  Atlantic  seaboard. 

7.  Falls. — These  falls  are  at  the  head  of  navigation 
and  of  tide-water,  and  the  belt  of  country  between  them 
and  the  sea  is  called  in  each  State  the  tide-water  or 
low  country. 

This  belt,  though  it  increases  in  l)readth  as  you  go 
south,  is  not  so  broad  as  it  would  be  had  the  rise  and 
fall  of  the  tides  been  as  great  in  the  South  as  they  are 
in  the  North. 

8.  Tides. — In  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  which  borders  the 
coast  of  Maine,  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  is  sixty 
feet,  whereas,  as  you  go  south  and  reach  the  shores  of 
the  Carolinas,  it  is  only  as  many  inches  ;  and  when  you 
get  to  the  shores  of  Florida,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  it  is 
not  so  much  as  a  foot. 

9.  Climate. — The  Gulf  Stream,  with  its  tepid  waters, 
sweeps  close  to  the  shores  of  the  Middle  States. 

The  New  p]n<'land  States  have  high  and  cold  moun- 
mills  from  which  the  west  winds  blow.  The  Middle 
States,  on  the  contrary.  New  York  esi)ecially,  have  the 
lakes  to  the  westward  of  thoni,  and  they  temper  in 
winter  the  keen  west  winds  as  they  sweep  by.  Sudi  is 
the  influence  of  lakes  and  large  sheets  of  open  water 
in  mitigating  the  severities  of  winter  climates. 

In  sheltered  spots  upon  the  borders  of  Lake  Ontario  it  is  so  mild  that 
even  the  peach  will  mature  in  the  open  air.  The  cold  west  winds,  after 
crossing  the  mountains  and  being  cliilled,  make  the  climates  of  New  Eng- 
land entirely  too  severe  for  this  delicious  fruit. 

10.  Pursuits. — The  difference  of  climate  in  these 
two  sections  is  also  both  seen  and  felt  in  its  effects  upon 
the  industrial  pursuits  of  the  people. 

Consequently  there  is  less  of  seafaring  and  manufac- 
turing in  the  Middle  States,  and  far  more  agriculture 
and  mining  industry.  The  former  States  are  poor  in 
mines,  but  the  latter  are  rich  in  both  coal  and  iron. 


NEW    YORK. 


41 


11.  P Inducts.  —  Wheat,  rye. 
oats,  and  Indian  corn,  buckwheat, 
orchard-fruits,  berries,  and  garden 
vegetables,  all  do  well  in  the  Mid- 
dle States. 

Still,  so  great  is  the  town  and  city  population 
of  these  States  in  comparison  with  their  rural 
population,  that  as  you  pass  in  review  State  after 
State  from  Maine  toward  the  South,  you  find 
none  of  them  producing  corn  and  wheat  enough 
for  their  own  consumption  until  you  come  to 
Maryland.  She  is  the  first  State  tluit  regularly 
produces  enough  and  to  spare.  Slic  also  grows 
more  tobacco  than  she  requires  for  her  owu  use, 
and  sends  large  quantities  of  it  abroad. 

Questions. — Name  the  Middle  States.  1. 
By  what  range  of  mountains  are  they  traversed  ? 
— What  are  their  principal  geographical  features 
as  shown  on  the  map  ? — Describe  the  great  water- 
sheds into  which  tL.ey  are  divided  by  these  moun- 
tains. 2.  Where  do  the  jVIiddle  States  lie  ?— Be- 
tween what  parallels  ? — What  rivers  have  water- 
gaps  through  the  AUeghanies  ?  3.  Which  is  the 
largest  and  which  the  smallest  of  these  States  ? 
4.   Describe  their  coast  line. 

ii.  Wliere  in  tiie  Middle  States  is  the  alluvial 
c-ountry  ?  G.  Descrilie  it. — Describe  the  tide- 
water country  and  the  navigation  of  the  rivers. — 
How  are  its  limits  marked  ?  7-  Contrast  the  tides 
and  the  shore-line  of  the  New  England  and  the 
JVliddle  Stiites. 

8.  How  high  does  the  tide  rise  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  V — How  high  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico?  0. 
Which  of  these  two  sections  has  the  mildest 
climate? — What  is  the  cause  of  this  difference? 

10.  What  are  the  industries  of  the  Middle  Sta:tes?  II.  What  are  the  agri- 
cultural productions  of  the  Middle  States  ? — "What,  the  mineral  productions  ? 
— As  you  travel  south  along  the  seaboard  from  Maine,  which  is  the  first  State 
you  c:)me  to  that  produces  breadstuffs  enough  for  home  consumption  ? 


8CENB     IN    BROADWAY,     NEW     7  0  B  K . 


LESSOjY  XXVII. 

More  about  the  Middle  States. 
New  York. 

The  climate  of  Western  New  York  is  tempered  by 
l.hc  lakes,  which  soften  the  west  winds  as  they  sweep 
over  them.  That  part  of  the  State  is,  therefore,  a  fine 
wheat  and  corn  country.  It  is  also  a  good  grazing 
country,  and  the  hardier  orchard-fruits  do  w^ell  there. 
New  York  is  also  a  wool-growing  State. 

There  are  salt-springs  at  Syracuse  which  arc  owned 
by  the  State  :  the  water  is  sold  to  the  salt-makers,  who 
produce  annually  about  one-sixth  of  all  the  salt  that  is 
consumed  in  the  United  States. 

Apart   from  her  salt-works  and  stone-quarries,  her 
beds  of  gypsum,  and  some  iron  ores  near  the  Pennsyl- 
vania line.  New  York  is  poor  in  minerals. 
6 


The  city  of  New  York  is  the  em|)oriuin  of  trade  for  the 
whole  country,  and  the  largest  city  in  the  New  World. 

Albany  is  one  of  the  most  important  inland  towns  in 
the  Middle  States,  and  is,  besides,  the  capital  of  the 
most  populous  State  in  the  Union.  It  is  situated  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hudson  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Erie  canal,  where  vessels  from  the 
Lakes  freighted  with  western  produce  meet  those  that 
ply  up  and  down  the  river  from  New  York. 

Lake  Erie,  as  is  shown  by  the  falls  and  rapids  of 
Niagara,  is  more  than  three  hundred  feet  above  Lake 
Ontario.  The  smaller  lakes,  which  give  such  a  charm 
to  the  scenery  in  this  part  of  the  State,  are  situated  on 
the  terrace  with  Lake  Erie  ;  consequently  the  rivers 
which  from  these  lakes  carry  water  into  Lake  Ontario, 
have,  like  the  Niagara,  to  leap  a  precipice  in  order  to 
escape  from  this  terrace.  Their  rapid  falls  afford  fine 
water-power  for  mills  and  manufacturing  purposes. 

Rochester  and  Oswego  have  availed  themselves  of  it, 
and  are  extensively  engaged  in  milling  and  iminun^ictur- 
ing.  Grist  is  sent  them  even  from  Canada  and  the 
West. 


A2 


NEW    JERSEY.— DELAWARE.— PENNSYLVANIA. 


Thi  falls  of  the  Hudson  are  near  Albany,  and  Troy 
avails  herself  of  the  power  afforded  by  them,  and  ap- 
plies it  to  various  manufacturing  purposes.  At  Water- 
vliet,  between  Albany  and  Troy,  the  United  States 
have  an  arsenal.  The  Military  Academy  at  West  Point 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  this  beautiful  river,  and  a  few 
miles  below  Newburg.  There  is  also  an  extensive 
navy-yard  at  Brooklyn. 

The  country  bordering  upon  the  Hudson  is  in  a  high 
state  of  cultivation  and  improvement.  The  fine  houses 
and  beautiful  grounds  lend  enchantment  to  the  scenery, 
and  many  travellers  take  passage  in  steamers  that  ply 
on  the  river  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  enjoying  the 
beautiful  views  that  meet  the  eye  at  every  turn.  The 
scenery  on  the  right  bank,  between  West  Point  and 
New  York,  is  rendered  bold  by  columns  of  basaltic 
rock  called  the  "Palisades,"  that  rise  up  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  height  of  four  or  five  hundred  feet. 

Notwithstanding  the  number,  splendor,  size,  and 
fleetness  of  the  steamboats  that  ply  on  the  Hudson  be- 
tween New  York  and  Albany,  a  railway  has  been  built 
directly  on  the  bank  all  the  way  between  the  two 
cities.  The  trains  run  very  swiftly,  and  carry  crowds 
of  passengers. 

New  Jersey. 

New  Jersey  has  more  sea- front  than  New  York. 
This  State  lies  almost  entirely  in  the  tide-water  coun- 
try. It  is  not  so  far  north  as  New  York  ;  it  has,  there- 
fore, a  milder  climate.  New  Jersey  is  famous  for  its 
fruit-orchards,  and  for  peaches  especially.  It  is  richer 
in  mines  of  iron  and  zinc  than  New  York. 

There  are  some  flourishing  manufacturing  towns  in 
this  gallant  little  State.  Paterson,  at  the  falls  of  the 
Passaic,  is  celebrated  for  its  railway  cars  and  locomo- 
tives— Newark  for  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  manu- 
factures ;  and  among  them,  those  of  india-rubber  in  par- 
ticular. Its  population  has  been  doubled  within  the 
last  seven  years. 

Princeton  College  is  one  of  the  most  renowned  and 
ancient  seminaries  of  learning  in  the  United  States. 

Delaware. 

Delaware  has  no  mountains  and  is  poor  in  minerals, 
but,  like  New  Jersey,  it  lies  mostly  in  tide-water  re- 
gions, is  rich  in  soil,  and  favored  with  a  mild  climate. 
It  is  a  fine  grazing  country,  and  the  laboring-classes  find 
profitable  employment  there  in  supplying  the  markets 
of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Baltimore,  Brooklyn,  and 
the  other  large  cities  and  towns  in  that  part  of  the 


country  with  fresh  meat,  butter,  fruit,  and  vegetables. 
The  most  celebrated  powder-mills  in  the  United  States 
are  on  the  Brandywine,  near  Wilmington. 

Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania  abounds  in  coal  and  iron  ;  the  richest 
wells  of  petroleum  oil  are  found  near  Lake  Erie,  in  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Alleghany  river,  in  this  State. 

The  anthracite  coal  of  Penn.sylvania  is  the  chief  ar- 
ticle of  fuel  that  is  used  for  domestic  purposes  in  the 
Middle  States.  It  is  largely  consumed,  also,  for  smelt- 
ing and  other  manufacturing  and  mechanical  purposes. 
It  constitutes  one  of  the  most  im})ortant  branches  of 
trade  in  the  United  States.  The  flourishing  cities  of 
Reading  and  Scranton  owe  their  prosperity  chiefly  to  it. 


A    COALCRACKEU, 


The  quantity  of  coal  exported  from  this  couutry  is  very  small.  All  that 
is  mined  is  required  in  our  domestic  economy.  Petroleum  lias  suddenly 
sprung  up  into  great  commercial  impoitance  :  the  first  oil  wells  were  dis- 
covered about  fifteen  years  ago;  it  is,  after  cotton  and  provisions,  the  chief 
article  of  export  from  this  country.  It  is  used  mostly  for  ligiits,  and  Ger- 
many is  our  best  customer.  Cotton  is  our  most  valuable  article  of  export. 
The  following  is  an  official  statement  of  the  exports  from  this  country  for  the 
year  ending  .Inly,  1871  :  Cotton,  $221,885,000  ;  Breadstnffs,  |79.382,000 ;  Oils 
and  Petroleum,  $.3r,:n:5,000;  Provisions,  $:J6,444,000 ;  Tobacco,  .f;22, 200,000; 
Naval  Stores,  $2,704,000;  all  others,  $12,917,000;  Total,  $412,o47,00(). 

The  German  farmers  of  Pennsylvania  are  noted  for 
their  good  husbandry  and  fine  barns,  which  are  gener- 
ally more  elegant  buildings  than  their  dwelling-houses. 

Philadelphia  is  celebrated  for  the  cleanliness  of  Its 
streets,  its  fine  market-places,  its  medical  schools,  its 
academies,  and  its  charitable  institutions. 

In  proportion  to  its  population,  Pittsburg  is  more 
extensively  engaged  in  manufacturing    than  any  otiier 


MARYLAND. — DISTRICT    OF    COLUMBIA. 


43 


t 


oitv  in  the  State.     Iron  and  glass  are  among  its  chief 

articles,  and  it  has  a  large  trade,  also,  in  bituminous 

coal,  with  which  the  neighboring  hills  are  bountifully 

stored. 

Maryland. 

The  peninsula  between  Delaware  Bay  and  the  Chesa- 
peake, belongs,  a  part  to  Delaware,  a  part  to  Mary- 
land, and  a  part  to  Virginia.  Its  elevation  above  the 
sea-level  is  not  much  :  for  it  is  without  mountains,  and 
its  climate  is  softened  by  the  mild  temperature  of  the 
ocean  and  warmtli  from  the  Gulf  Stream  in  winter, 
and  by  the  cooling  sea-breezes  in  summer. 

Moreover,  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  with  its  ojjcn  water 
and  other  benign  influences,  reaches  up  into  the  heart  of 
Maryland,  and  imparts  to  the  country  along  its  shores, 
in  this  State,  a  softer  climate  than  any  other  part  of  the 
Middle  States  can  boast  of. 

Tobacco  is  prominent  among  the  agricultural  staples 
of  Maryland,  which  embi-ace  corn,  wheat,  and  the  other 
cereals. 

Its  mountains  abound  in  coal  and  iron,  and  mining 
constitutes  a  large  and  important  branch  of  the  industry 
of  this  State. 

Baltimore,  on  the  Patai)sco  river,  is  the  sixth  city 
in  the  Union. 


A     BCENE     IN     BALTIMORE, 


Cumberland,  at  the  western  terminus  of  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Ohio  canal,  is  the  centre  of  the  mining  region. 

Frederick,  on  the  border,  and  Hagerstown,  where 
there  is  an  excellent  college,  are  in  the  middle  of  that  ex- 


ceedingly fertile  belt  of  30tintry,  of  which  the  celebrated 
Valley  of  Virginia  forms  a  part.  Its  fertility  is  owing 
to  the  same  vein  of  limestone  that  makes  the  Falls  of 
Niagara.  The  Genesee  country,  the  finest  agricultural 
part  of  New  York  ;  the  Harrisburg  country,  the  best  in 
Pennsylvania  ;  and  the  Shenandoah  valley  the  garden 
spot  of  Virginia,  are  all  upon  this  vein  of  limestone. 
Weirs'  Cave,  with  its  splendid  stalactites,  near  Staun- 
ton, and  the  Natural  Bridge  in  Rockbridge  county,  near 
Lexington,  with  its  fine  archway,  both  in  Virginia,  are 
formed  of  this  limestone  rock. 

This  vein  forks  in  Virginia,  one  part  passing  through  Lexington  and  the 
Green  River  country  of  Kentucky,  tliu  other  via  Abingdon,  Virginia,  into 
Tennessee,  and  so  on  to  the  Muscle  Siioals  of  the  Tennessee,  where  the  two 
forks  come  together  and  continue  tlieir  course  toward  the  southwest.  It 
crops  out  from  under  tlie  Walnut  Hills  of  Vicksburg  ;  that  is  the  last  that  is 
seen  of  it.  The  country,  all  the  way  from  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  to  those 
of  the  Niagara  River,  is  one  of  unsurpassed  fertility. 

The  blue-grass  country  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  owes  its  celebrity  to 
this  fertilizing  vein. 

Trace  this  limestone  vein  on  the  nuip  with  the  eye,  for  it  will  enlighten 
j'ou  as  to  the  distribution  of  labor,  and  help  you  properly  to  understand  the 
geography  of  your  country. 

No  sheet  ot  water  in  the  world  surpasses  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay  for  the  variety,  excellence,  and  abundance  of 
the  fish  and  game  with  which  its  shores  and  waters 
abound.  Its  shad  and  herring  fisheries  are  very  valu- 
able.    Seines,  a  mile  long,  are  hauled  for  them. 

The  canvass-back  duck,  the  terrapin,  and  the  oyster 
of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  are  unsurpassed  in  flavor  and 
excellence.  They  often  grace  the  tables  of  royalty  in 
Europe,  as  delicacies.  This  sheet  of  water,  on  account  of 
the  v;ilue  of  its  fisheries,  has  been  compared  for  wealth  to 
the  gold  mines  of  California.  The  oyster-sellers  through- 
out the  West  are  supplied  chiefly  from  its  bounties. 
DiSTKicT  OF  Columbia. 

This  District,  embracing  originally  an  area  of  10  miles 
s(|iuire,  was  ceded,  a  part  by  Virginia  and  a  part  by 
Maryland,  to  the  general  Government. 

In  1846,  Congress  ceded  back  to  Virginia  the  portion 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac  that  was  originally 
ceded  by  her,  so  that  now  the  District  contains  only 
iiboul  60  square  miles. 

Washington  City  was  planned  by  General  Washington. 
It  is  beautifully  laid  out,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Potomac, 
and  contains  many  magnificent  public  buildings,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  the  capitol.  It  was  called  District 
ort^olumbia  after  Columbus.  It  is  no  longer  governed 
directly  by  Congress,  but,  like  the  territories,  has  a 
legislature  and  one  delegate  to  Congress. 

The  peoi)le  of  the  District  have  a  Governor  appointed 
by  the  President  and  Senate. 


44 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    THE    MIDDLE    STATES. 


THE    NATIONAL     CA  r  I  T  o  1.  . 

Georgetown,  availing  itself  of  the  water-power  de- 
rived from  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  is  engaged 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  flour  ;  it  has  also  a 
considerable  trade.  This  city  is  connected  with  Alex- 
andria by  the  canal  which  crosses  the  Potomac  at 
Greorgetown,  over  a  magnificent  aqueduct. 

Washington  is  without  commerce  or  manufactures ;  it 
derives  its  importance  entirely  from  the  presence  of  the 
Government. 

Questions.— ^hich  State  embraces  the  most  degrees  of  latitude  ? — What 
effect  have  the  Great  Lakes  upon  the  climate  of  New  York?— What  are  its 
principal  agricultural  staples  V— Where  are  the  aalt-works?— To  what  does 
Alhany  owe  its  importance  ? — How  high  is  the  level  of  Lake  Erie  above  that 
of  Lake  Ontario  ?— Uow  do  the  streams  get  from  one  level  to  the  other  ?— 
What  use  is  made  of  these  falls?— Wliat  two  cities  have  availed  themselves 
extensively  of  this  water-power?— For  what  purpose  ?— Where  are  the  Falls 
of  the  Hudson? — What  city  makes  the  most  extensive  use  of  this  water- 
power? — What  important  Government  establishments  are  at  Watervliet 
and  Brooklyn  ?— Where  is  West  Point?— What  makes  it  so  noted?— Where 
are  tlie  Palisades? — What  are  they  ? 

Which  has  the  mildest  climate  and  the  longest  coast-line,  New  York  or 
New  .Jersey  ?— How  do  you  account  for  this  difference  of  climate?— For  what 
industries  are  Paterson  and  Newark  noted  ?— Where  is  Princeton,  and  for 
what  is  it  celebrated  ? 

What  are  the  most  valuable  minerals  in  which  Pennsylvania  most 
abounds  ?— What  is  the  chief  article  of  fuel  in  the  Middle  States  ?— Whence 
is  it  obtained  ?— Name  the  chief  article  of  export.— What  is  the  most  valua- 
ble?—What  is  the  chief  market  for  petroleum?— What  can  you  say  of  Penn- 
sylvania as  an  agricultural  State?— For  what  is  Philadelphia  especially 
noted?— For  what  is  Pittsburg?- To  what  do  Reading  and  Scranton  chiefly 
owe  their  prosperity  ? — Where  are  they  situated  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  Delaware  ? — Name  the  staple  productions  of  that 
State,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania. — What  famous  works  are  on  the  Bran- 
dywine  near  Wilmington  ? — By  what  States  is  the  Delaware  peninsula  occu- 
pied ? — Describe  it. — To  what  do  you  attribute  its  mildness  of  climate  ? 

What  are  the  staple  productions  of  Maryland  ? — Where  are  her  coal  mines  ? 
— Upon  what  vein  of  rock  is  Hagerstown  ? — Look  at  the  map,  and  name  the 
parts  of  the  Southern  States  that  are  situated  upon  it. — What  do  you  know 
about  the  fisheries  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries  ? 

What  is  the  Territory  of  Columbia? — How  is  its  name  derived? — Are  its 
inhabitants  entitled  to  representation  ? — Who  makes  their  laws  ? — Describe 
Washington  City. — Who  planned  it  ? — To  what  does  it  owe  its  importance  ? 
— Where  is  Georgetown? — In  what  business  is  it  chiefly  engaged? — How  is 
it  connected  with  Alexandria  ? 


LESSOJY   XXVIII. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  the  Middle  States. 

Soundaries. — How  are  the  Middle  States  bounded  ? — Bound  each  one, 
and  the  Territory  of  Columbia,  separately. 

Ctrpitals  and  Towns.— Giva  the  population  of  each  State,  with 
that  of  its  chief  town. — Tell  the  situation  of  each  capital. — Tell  the  bearings 
and  distance  of  each  Capital  from  the  chief  town  of  the  State. — Which  of 
them  exteads  from  tide-water  to  the  Lakes  ? — AVhich  has  the  greatest  length 
of  sea-coast  ? 

Const  Marks  and  Indentations. — Name  the  principal  Bays  along 
the  coast  of  the  Middle  States. 

JSIcntion  the  principal  Islands. — The  chief  Capes. 

Mountains. — What  mountain  .system  crosses  this  section  of  tlie  United 
States? — In  what  direction  does  it  extend? — What  part  of  New  York  does 
it  cross? — Where  does  it  cross  New  Jersey? — Point  out  the  Adirondacks. 
— What  is  the  most  eastern  range  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  called  ? — Name 
the  chains  in  Pennsylvania,  beginning  at  the  eastern  part  of  the  State. — 
Name  the  mountains  in  New  York. 

Faffs. — Where  are  the  Niagara  Falls  ? — Trenton  Falls  are  near  Utica, 
X.  Y. — Where  is  Harper's  Feny  ? — Wliere  is  the  Delaware  AVater-Gap  ? 
Ann.  Where  the  Delaware  River  forces  itself  through  the  eastern  ridge  of 
the  Allcghanies,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  New  Jersey. — What  Falls  are 
thereat  Rochester?  Ans.  Those  of  the  Genesee  River,  as  it  nutkes  its  way 
into  Lake  Ontario. 

Comparative  Geof/rapfii/.—Lonk  at  the  map,  and  describe  the 
difference  between  the  sea-coast  of  the  Middle  States  and  of  New  Eng- 
land.— Which  has  the  greatest  breadth  of  tide-water  country,  and  lh(; 
greatest  length  of  navigable  rivers,  the  New  England  or  the  Middle  States  ? 
— On  account  of  what  natural  cause  is  it,  that  the  alluvial  country  in  the 
Middle  States  is  so  much  broader  than  it  is  in  New  England  ? — What  infer- 
ence do  you  draw  from  this,  as  to  the  extent  of  inland  navigation  in  the  two 
sections?— Name,  in  each  section,  .some  of  tlie  principal  seaport  towns,  and 
describe  their  situation. 

Towns  and  Cities. — How  far  is  New  York  from  Sandy  Hook? 
— How  far  from  the  Gulf  Stream  ?  Aiij<.  About  240  miles. — Where,  in  New 
York,  is  Syracuse  ?— Rochester  ? — Buffalo  ? — Binghamton  ? — Ithaca  ? — Sara- 
toga ? — Poughkeepsie  ? — Brooklyn  ? 

Point  out,  in  Pennsylvania,  Pittsburg. — Where  is  Harrisburg? — Reading? 
— Scranton  ? — Mauch  Chunk  ? — Gettysburg  ? 

Where,  in  New  Jersey,  is  Trenton  ?— Elizabeth  ?— Paterson  ?— Newark? 
Princeton  ? 

Where  is  Dover  ? — Wilmington  ?— Where  is  Annapolis  ?— Baltimore  ?— 
Ellicott's  Mills  ?— Port  Tobacco  ?— Frederick  ?— Havre  de  Grace  ?— Hagers- 
town ? — Georgetown  ? 

Rivers  and  Lakes.— Descnhe  the  coui-se  of  the  Hudson. — Trace 
the  Mohawk.— The  Delaware.— The  Susquehanna.— The  Potomac— Trace 
the  headwaters  of  the  Ohio.— What  streams  form  the  Ohio?— Find 
Lake  George.— Lake  Champlain.— Where  does  the  St.  Lawrence  empty  its 
waters  V— What  lakes  are  drained  by  the  Oswego  River  ?-Wiiat  rivers  and 
lakes  border  on  the  Middle  States?— What  State  most  abounds  in  lakes ?— 
Upon  what  watershed  are  these  lakes  chiefly  situated  ?— Name  the  principal 
rivers  of  the  Southern,  the  Western,  and  the  Northern  watershed.- What 
tributary  of  the  Ohio  takes  its  rise  farthest  to  the  North  ?— Wiiat  farthest  to 
the  East  ?— Which  is  the  longest,  the  Che.sapeakc  or  llio  Delaware  Bay?— 


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46 


THE    SOUTHERN    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


What  Rivers  empty  into  them  ?— What  Capes  are  at  the  mouth  of  each  ?— 
What,  judging  by  the  eye  and  the  scale  of  miles,  is  the  greatest  length  and 
breadth  of  each  Bay  ? 

Routes  and  Travels.— How  would  you  go  by  steamboat  from 
New  York  to  Albany?— On  what  waters  would  you  sail  in  going  from 
New  York  to  Philadelphia  ?— To  Baltimore  ?— How,  in  the  same  way,  from 
Buffalo  to  Oswego  ?— To  Ogdensburg  ?— How  would  you  go  by  steamboat 
from  New  York  to  Boston  ?— From  New  York  to  Atlantic  City  ?— To  Cape 
May  ?— How  would  you  go  by  railroad  from  New  York  to  Albany  ?— To 
Buffalo  ?— To  Dunkirk  ?— From  Buffalo  to  Pittsburg  ?— To  Harrisburg  ?— To 
Washington  ?— How  would  you  go  by  rail  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburg  ?— 
From  Wilmington  to  Trenton  ?— How  would  you  go  from  New  York,  by 
steamer,  to  Green  Port,  Long  Island  ?  Am.  You  would  go  by  way  of  Long 
Island  Sound.— How  do  steamers  enter  the  Sound  from  New  York  ?  Am. 
By  passing  through  East  River,  an  arm  or  estuary  of  Long  Island  Sound,  im- 
properly called  a  river.— Where  is  T>ong  Branch  ?— Cape  May?— Atlantic  City? 

Miscellaneous.— To  which  of  the  four  cities,  Boston,  New  York,  Phil- 
adelphia, and  Baltimore,  measuring  in  a  direct  line,  is  Chicago,  at  the  head 
of  lake  navigation,  nearest?  Ans.  To  Baltimore.— To  which  of  these  four 
great  Atlantic  Cities  is  Cleveland,  Ohio,  nearest?  Am.  To  Baltimore.— 
To  which  of  them  is  Buffalo  nearest  ?    Ans.  To  Baltimore. 

On  which  bank  of  the  Delaware  is  Philadelphia  ?— On  which  bank  of  the 
Hudson  is  New  York  ?— Jersey  City  ?— How  is  Baltimore  situated  ?— Wil- 
mington ?— How  is  Washington  located  ?— Georgetown  ? 


LESSOM   XXIX. 

The  Eleven-  Southern  States  and  Two  Territories. 

Total  Population,  9,591.260. 


State. 

Capitals. 

Chief  Cities  and  their 
Population. 

Virprinifl                                .  .     .  . 

Richmond 

Richmond 51,037 

^ortli   Oci'ol  i  n a 

Raleigh 

Wilmington ....     13,446 

Columbia 

Charleston 48,956 

rilpnrp'in 

Atlanta 

Savannah 28,235 

Ti^loridn.                                  .  . 

Tallahassee 

Pensacola 3,347 

Montgomery 

Mobile 32,034 

TVTississiDDi 

Jackson 

Natchez 9.057 

Louisiana 

New  Orleans  

Austin 

New  Orleans  . . .   191,418 

Texas 

Galveston 13,818 

Arkansas 

Little  Rock 

Little  Rock 12,380 

nr**nnps*?t*p 

Nashville 

(Memphis 40,220 

"(  Nashville 25,865 

Tahlequah 1000 

Indian  Territory 

Tahlequah    

Santa  Fe 

Santa  Fe 9,699 

1.  Geographical  Position. — The  Southern  States 
lie  between  the  parallels  of  26°  and  40°.  These  are 
the  most  favored  latitudes  on  the  earth,  both  as  to 
climate  and  production.  Between  these  parallels  are 
found  such  countries  in  Europe,  as  Grreece  with  its 
Archipelago ;  Southern  Italy  and  Spain  ;  the  Land  of 
Goshen,  in  Egypt ;  and   in  Asia,  the  Promised  Land — 


the  Yale  of  Cashmere — the  Valleys  of  the  Hoang  Ho, 
and  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  where  lie  the  great  City  of 
Pekin,  and  the  choicest  parts  of  China  and  Japan. 

Excepting  the  two  countries  of  Italy  and  Greece,  the  Southern  States  arc 
better  watered  than  any  of  them. 

2,  Past  and  Present  Condition. — Domestic  servi- 
tude was  one  of  the  established  institutions  of  the 
South  ])rcvious  to  the  recent  war.  In  round  num- 
bers there  were  4,000,000  of  negro  slaves,  who  were 
emancipated  by  proclamation  from  the  President  of  the 
United  States. 

In  consequence  of  this  and  the  ravages  of  war,  the 
industry  of  the  South  has  been  greatly  deranged,  and 
the  people  have  not  yet  had  time  fairly  to  adjust  them- 
selves to  their  new  situation. 

Let  us,  therefore,  content  ourselves  by  looking  not  so 
much  at  the  present  industries  and  political  condition, 
as  at  the  natural  geography  and  resources  of  the  South- 
ern States. 

:i.  Peculiar  Features. — The  Southern  States  em- 
brace nearly  twice  the  breadth  of  latitude  contained  in 
the  Middle  States  and  the  New  England  States  together, 
and  they  contain  f(mr  times  their  area  and  four  times 
their  extent  of  sea-coast. 

The  population  of  the  Southern  States,  however, 
amounts  to  only  four-lifths  of  that  of  the  two  other 
sections. 

E.xcepting  Virginia,  the  shores  of  the  Southern  States  are  curtained  with 
a  chain  of  long,  narrow,  and  sandy  islands,  with  navigable  inlets  and  pass- 
ages here  and  there  obstructed  by  sandbars  which  prevent  the  entrance  of 
ships  that  draw  more  than  si.xteen  or  eighteen  feet  of  water.  The  largest 
ships  draw  28  feet 

As  we  go  from  the  sea  iuliuul,  anywhere  between  Virginia  and  Texas,  we 
cross  a  belt  of  swamps,  covered  with  cypress,  magnolias,  yellow  jessamine, 
and  jungle.  Then  we  come  to  a  sandy  soil  in  the  piny  belt.  In  some  parts 
these  two  belts  are  300  miles  broad ;  nowhere  less  than  100.  After  them 
come  the  oaks  and  the  deciduous  trees.  The  cypress  belt  is  noted  for  its 
pendent  mosses,  parasites,  and  flowers — Magnolia  grandiflora,  and  tlie 
yellow  jessamine,  the  loveliest  of  them  all ;  the  pine  belt,  for  its  ship-timber 
and  naval  stores.  In  the  Gulf  States,  the  cotton  produced  by  this  sandy 
sjil,  which  extends  through  Mississippi  as  fur  up  as  Tennessee,  is  called 
uplands. 

4.  Watersheds, — The  Alleghany  Mountains  divide 
the  Southern  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  into  three 
watersheds,  sloping  severally  to  the  east,  south,  and 
west,  and  sending  their  streams  and  rivers  off  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  into  the 
Mississippi  River. 

New  Mexico  and  Western  Texas  are  evidently  dry 
countries,  for,  as  the  map  shows,  they  have  few  water- 
courses. Consequently,  in  these  regions  you  would  ex- 
pect to  find  severe  droughts  and  much  barren  land. 

"  Llano  Estacado,"  the  Staked  Plain,  in  Texas,  is  an 


THE    SOUTHERN    STATES. 


47 


immense  barren  waste  across  which  the  early  Mexican 
travellers  and  traders  marked  their  way  by  sticking  up 
stakes  along  the  trail. 

o.  Minerals. — The  mountainous  regions  of  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  G-eorgia,  and  Tennessee  are  rich  in 
minerals.  Iron,  coal,  lead,  copper,  salt  springs,  min- 
eral springs  of  rare  virtue,  quarries  of  marble  and  gyp- 
sum, and  veins  of  gold  ;  in  Louisiana,  salt-beds  ;  in 
Arkansas,  salines  and  quarries  for  the  best  of  whet- 
stones ;  in  Alabama,  artesian  wells  with  power  to  turn 
machiner}'  : — these  are  some  of  the  mineral  riches  and 
sources  of  wealth  in  the  Southern  States  which  depend 
not  upon  climate. 

6*.  Climate  and  Occupations. — You  already  un- 
derstand enough  about  climates  to  infer  simply  from 
the  map  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the 
climates  of  Virginia  and  the  New  England  States  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  climates  of  Virginia  and  the 
Gulf  States  on  the  other  ;  and  that,  consequently,  there 
should  be  a  corresponding  diflTerence  in  the  industrial 
pursuits. 

In  Virginia  the  chief  occupations  consist  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  wheat,  corn,  rye,  oats,  and  tobacco,  fruit  and 
vegetables  ;  in  the  cutting  of  firewood  and  ship-timber 
for  the  northern  cities  ;  and  in  wool-growing,  grape- 
growing,  cattle-raising,  mining,  and  fishing. 

lu  the  more  Southern  States,  industr}^  in  addition  to 
the  raising  of  flocks  and  herds,  is  directed  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  rice,  cotton,  and  sugar,  with  breadstuflfs  and 
fruits  for  home  consumption,  and  to  the  turpentine  and 
lumber  business. 

7.  Influence  of  Inventions. — Human  inventions 
and  improvements  are  important  geographical  agents, 
for  they  often  change  or  alter  the  industrial  pursuits 
throughout  extensive  regions  of  country.  So  far  as  they, 
do  this,  they  bear  upon  questions,  especially  of  political 
geography,  and  they  should  not  escape  the  attention  of 
those  who  study  this  most  important  and  instructive  de- 
partment of  human  knowledge. 

Not  only  the  face  of  our  country,  but  the  chief  indus- 
trial pursuits  of  the  people  have  been  greatly  changed 
or  aflfected  by  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin,  by  the 
application  of  steam  to  machinery  and  locomotion,  and 
by  the  various  mechanical  improvements  of  the  age. 

Before  Whitney's  invention  of  the  cotton-gin,  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in 
tiie  Southern  Stales  was  confined  to  a  small  "  patch"  on  each  farm,  capable 
of  producing  a  few  pounds  only,  from  which  the  seeds  were  picked  by  hand, 
and  tiie  wool  washed,  carded,  spun,  and  woven  by  the  women  of  the  family 
into  cloth  or  "  homespun,"  then  the  chief  article  of  clothing. 


The  staple  production  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  at  that  time,  was 
indigo,  and  cotton  was  known,  as  an  article  of  commerce,  only  in  India  and 
the  East. 

But,  with  Whitney's  gin,  which  in  a  few  minutes  could  pick  the  seed  out 
from  as  much  wool  as  a  whole  family  could  pick  in  a  day,  the  sagacious  people 
of  these  States  perceived  that  the  cultivation  of  cotton  would  be  much  m(>re 
profitable  than  indigo — so  they  gave  up  indigo  and  undertook  cotton.  Tlie 
farmers  in  India,  perceiving  how  much  superior  to  theirs  the  American  cotton 
was,  gave  up  cotton  and  undertook  indigo— for  the  indigo  of  India  is  as  good 
as  ours. 

About  seventy  years  ago,  an  American  ship,  from 
Charleston,  arrived  in  England  with  ten  bales  of  cotton 
as  a  part  of  her  cargo.  She  was  seized,  on  the  ground 
that  so  much  cotton  could  not  be  produced  in  the  United 
States.  Before  the  war,  the  production  had  reached 
four  millions  and  upward. 

The  invention  of  the  spinning-jenny  and  the  power- 
loom,  about  that  time,  tended  still  further  to  stimulate 
the  })roduction  of  cotton  ;  and  as  raiment  is  to  the 
human  family  next  in  importance  to  food,  the  production 
of  cotton  in  those  States  continued  to  increase  until  the 
year  before  the  war,  when  it  had  reached  the  enormous 
quantity,  before  stated,  of  four  millions  of  bales  and  up- 
ward, and  which,  at  present  prices,  would  be  worth  not 
less  than  $200,000,000. 

8.  Value  of  Productions. — Before  the  war,  the 
people  of  the  Southern  States  addressed  themselves  with 
great  skill  and  energy  to  the  various  branches  of  agri- 
cultural industry,  wisely  trusting  to  the  natural  advan- 
tages afforded  by  their  soil  and  climate  to  give  effect  to 
their  labor  ;  and  though  numbering  but  little  more  than 
one-third  of  the  population  of  the  whole  country,  they 
produced,  in  value,  two-thirds  of  the  whole  amount  of 
its  exports. 

Questions. — 1.  Name  the  eleven  Southern  States. — Between  what  par- 
allels of  latitude  do  they  lie? — What  countries  remarkable  for  fertility  in  the 
Old  World  lie  between  the  same  parallels?  2.  What  is  said  of  domestic 
servitude  ?  3.  How  do  the  Southern  States  compare,  as  to  climate,  area,  and 
population,  with  the  New  England  and  Middle  States? — Contrast  their  coast- 
lines and  compare  their  harbors,  from  Norfolk  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande. 
— What  obstructs  the  harbors  ? — Where  is  Noifolk  ? — Trace  out  on  the  map, 
and  describe,  the  chain  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic  that  skirts  the  Soutliern  coast- 
— How  much  water  do  the  largest  ships  draw  ? — Describe  the  three  principal 
watersheds  into  which  the  Southern  States  are  divided,  and  point  out  the 
principal  streams  which  carry  off  the  drainage. — What  parts  of  the  Southern 
States  suffer  most  from  want  of  water? — Point  out  and  describe  the  Llano 
Estacado.  5.  Point  out  on  the  map  those  parts  of  Virginia  that  are  richest 
in  minerals. — Those  in  Tennessee. — Those  in  North  Carolina. — What  kind  of 
minerals? — What  kind  in  Louisiana? — What  kind  in  Arkansas? — In  Ala- 
bama? (i.  How  does  the  climate  of  Virginia  compare  with  the  climate  of 
New  England,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  Gulf  States,  on  the  other? — What 
are  the  chief  industrial  pursuits  of  Virginia? — What,  in  the  more  Southern 
States  ?  7-  Can  you  give  instances  in  which  industries  of  people  have  been 
changed  or  created  by  human  inventions  ? — Before  the  invention  of  the  cotton- 
gin,  what  were  the  chief  staples  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia? — Why  did 
indigo  go  to  India  and  cotton  come  to  Carolina  and  the  South  for  cultivation  ? 
— Why  was  an  American  ship,  with  a  few  bales  of  cotton  on  board,  seventy 


48 


VIRGINIA. 


years  ago,  seized  in  Liverpool  ? — How  many  million  of  bales  had  the  annual 
cotton  crop  reached  before  the  war  ?  8.  What  portion  of  the  exports  of  the 
country  at  that  time  was  of  Scutheru  growtli  ? 


LESSOJV  XXX. 

The  Southern  States — Continued. 

ViKGINIA. 

Yirginia,  the  oldest  of  the  States,  and  "Mother  of 
Statesmen,'"'  was  the  largest  of  the  "original  thirteen,"' 
and  nsed  to  be  called  the  "  Old  Dominion." 

In  the  Revolution  of  1776  she  took  the  lead,  and 
played  a  most  conspicuous  part.  She  was  renowned  for 
the  virtue  of  her  sons  and  the  wisdom  of  her  statesmen. 
Some  of  the  greatest  men— Washington,  Madison,  Mar- 
shall, Jefferson — that  the  country  has  i)roduced,  were 
Virginians. 

This  State  is  situated  between  the  parallels  of  36°  30' 
and  SQ*^  40'  north  latitude.  It  fronts  for  more  than  two 
hundred  miles  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  mag- 
nificent Chesapeake  Bay,  itself  an  arm  of  the  sea.  Its 
western  borders  extend  back  to  the  tributaries  of  the 
Ohio,  and  form  a  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  They 
are  drained  into  that  river  through  the  Ohio  by  New 
river  and  the  Tennessee. 

The  climates  of  Virginia  correspond  nearly  Avith  those 
of  Cashmere  and  the  best  parts  of  China. 

Her  latitude,  the  length  of  her  days  and  nights,  and  the  skies  overhead,  arc 
the  same  as  those  in  some  parts  of  Asia  Minor ;  but  the  climates  of  the  two 
countries  differ  chiefly  in  this — Asia  Min(>r  is  a  iby  couutr}',  Virginia  is  well 
watered. 

The  mountains  here,  though  they  rise  into  peaks  4,000 
or  5,000  feet  high,  are  neither  snow-capped  nor  barren, 
but  are  clothed  with  forest-trees  and  undergrowth  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top,  affording  fine  range  and  pasture* 
for  cattle. 

This  woody  vesture  is  a  striking  and  peculiar  feature  of  the  whole  Al- 
leghany range.  Both  these  mountains  and  their  spurs  are  forest-clad  from 
Maine  to  Georgia.  Upon  them,  as  well  as  in  the  valleys  between  their  ridges 
and  spurs,  are  to  be  found  medicinal  plants,  timber,  and  ornamental  woods  of 
various  kinds  and  fine  quality,  such  as  cypress  and  cedar,  maple,  walnut, 
chestnut,  beech,  wild  cherry,  dogwood,  and  lignum  vitae,  pines  and  oaks 
of  many  varieties,  with  hickory,  ash,  mulberry,  snake-root,  ginseng,  sumac,  etc 

In  tide-water  Virginia,  the  cutting  of  ship-timber  for 
northern  builders,  and  of  fire-wood  for  northern  brick- 
kilns and  other  purposes,  creates  profitable  industries. 

The  Natural  Bridge,  in  Rockbridge  County,  is  an 
object  of  great  interest  to  tourists. 


NATURAL     BBIDOB. 


The  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  their  outlying  range 
of  the  Blue  Ridge,  run  along  in  a  zigzag  course,  but 
nearly  parallel  to  each  other  ;  the  valleys  between  them 
vary  in  breadth  from  30  to  70  miles,  and  are  very  fertile. 
The  Valley  of  the  Shenandoah  is  the  largest  and  most 
fertile  among  them. 

Rising  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  these  mountains,  and 
flowing  through  these  valleys,  are  the  Potomac,  the 
Shenandoah,  the  James,  and  the  Roanoke  rivers.  The 
Rappahannock  and  the  York  rise  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge. 
The  New  river  has  its  head-waters  in  North  Cai-olina, 
and  empties  into  the  Ohio  river,  on  the  western  slopes 
of  the  mountains,  where  the  head-waters  of  the  Tennessee 
take  their  rise.  These  are  noble  rivers.  The  smallest 
of  them  is  larger  than  the  Thames  in  Europe. 

All  tiiese  rivers  which  flow  down  the  Atlantic  slope,  are  navigable  from 
the  sea  to  the  head  of  tide-watei,  and  for  distances  varying  from  100  lo  200 
miles  from  the  ocean. 

The  distances  from  their  sources  to  tide-water  varies  from  50  to  250  miles, 
with  a  total  fall  in  their  descent  of  from  300  to  3,000  feet  in  the  aggregate. 

This  affords,  all  along  these  streams,  from  the  mountains  to  tide-watci-, 
abundant  water-power  for  mills  and  machinery  of  all  sorts. 

The  whole  country  is  well  wooded  and  watered,  and  is 
rich  in  minerals. 

The  coal-fields  near  Richmond  have  been  j)rofitably  worked  for  many 
years.  The  coal  is  bituminous,  and  is  extensively  used  in  Philadelphia,  New 
York,  and  other  cities,  for  the  production  of  gas. 

Winchester,   in  the  Shenandoah  Yallev,   and   Fred- 


TKCfT'E^The  Soutk-Weslern  boitvdnry  0/  Maryland  is  the  ri;rht  bank  0/ /he 
Palontar  Kifrr  from  iff  iourre  to  S»itf/i's  f'oint  at  tH  month  and 
the  Southern  Loundary  u  at  sHmvn  t>j>  thi  ime  on  the  Ata^t 


"3^ 


NORTH  CAROLINA  AND  TENNESSEE. 


49 


ericksbiirg.  on  the  Rappahannock,  are  celebrated  for  the 
great  battles  that  were  fought  at  and  near  them  during  the 
late  war.  The  latter  has  fine  water-power.  Williams- 
burg was,  in  colonial  times,  the  capital  of  the  State  ;  and 
William  and  Marj,  situated  there,  is  the  oldest  college 
in  Virginia.  The  University  at  Charlottesville  and  the 
Virginia  Military  Institute  with  Washington  College, 
both  at  Lexington,  are  flourishing  institutions. 

The  harbor  of  Norfolk,  for  capacity  and  depth  of 
water,  is  not  surpassed  in  the  United  States. 

Richmond  has  most  extensive  flour-mills,  large  found- 
ries, and  a  great  number  of  machine-shops. 

Richmond  flour  is  especially  valuetl,  because,  in  shipping  it  across  tlie 
Equator,  it  is  not   liable  to  "  heat"  or  ferment. 

Petersburg  and  Lynchburg  ai'c  largely  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  fobacco,  for  which  the  climate  of  the 
latter  is  particularly  favorable. 

Staunton,  in  the  valley  of  Virginia,  has  asylums  for 
the  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  for  the  insane.  Alex- 
andria, eight  miles  below  Washington,  has  a  good  trade. 

XOKTH    C.A.ROLIXA   AXD   TkNNESSEE. 

North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  are  between  the  same 
l)arallels  of  latitude,  and,  except  in  the  tide-water 
country  of  the  former,  the  industrial  pursuits  of  the  two 
States,  so  far  as  the 
soil  is  concerned,  are 
very  much  the  same. 
Tennessee  is  the 
daughter  of  North 
Carolina,  as  Ken- 
tucky was  of  Virginia. 

Tiie  ,  territoiy  once  be- 
lonj^etl  to  lier,  and  Tennessee 
was  settled  diiefly  by  emi- 
grants from  Nortli  Carolina. 
Daniel  Boone,  the  celebrateil 
backwoodsman,  who  led  the 
way  for  settlers,  both  ini" 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
!    was  a  North  Carolinian. 

The  cypress 
swamps  and  forests 
of  pitch-[)ine,  whicli 
abound  in  the  tide- 
water country  of 
•North  Carolina,  af- 
ford to  her  i)eoj)le 
important  and  valu- 
able branches  of  in- 
dustry, in  the  cutting 


aORAPINO  CBUDK  TURPENTINE. 


and  getting  out  of  cypress  staves,  shingles,  of  lumber 
and  naval  stores. 

Tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine  are  all  the  productions  of 
the  yellow  i)itch-pine.  The  turpentine  is  obtained  by 
blazing  the  tree,  and  dipping  the  gum  from  a  box  that  is 
put  at  the  root  to  receive  it  as  it  exudes  from  the  tree. 

Many  of  these  trees  are  very  tall  and  straight,  and 
they  make  the  finest  masts  and  spars  for  ships  in  the 
world  ;  large  numbers  of  them  are  sent  to  the  dock-yards 
of  France  and  England  for  their  men-of-war. 

The  mild  climate  and  the  tides  in  the  flat  country  of  North  Carolina, 
adapt  many  parts  of  it  to  the  cultivation  of  rice,  and  in  the  geograjihical  dis- 
tribution of  labor  in  this  State  the  people  find  profitable  branches  of  indus- 
try in  their  rice-fields,  as  well  as  in  their  pine-forests,  the  presence  of  which, 
in  Tennessee,  is  forbidden  by  geographical  law.  Both  States  are  admirably 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  peas,  beans,  and 
barley  ;  fla.K  and  hemp  ;  to  the  vine,  fig,  and  peach,  with  other  orchard- fruits  ; 
to  melons,  peanuts,  and  sweet  potatoes ;  and  along  the  southern  borders  of 
both  States  cotton  is  extensively  cultivated. 

In  the  mountainous  portions  of  these  States  are  found 
valuable  deposits,  and  veins  of  gold,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
iron,  coal,  and  marble.  The  marbles  of  Tennessee  are 
more  esteemed  than  those  of  anv  other  State  for  their 
beauty  and  variet3^  Tennessee  also  excels  in  stock- 
Y'd'mng. 

Mount  Mitchell,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Alleghanies, 
is  in  North  Carolina. 

The  University  of  North  Carolina,  at  Chapel  Hill,  is 
an  old  and  excellent  institution. 

Wilmington  is  the  chief  place  of  export  for  the  naval 
stores,  staves,  shingles,  timber,  rice,  and  cotton  of  North 
Carolina.     It  has  many  saw-mills. 

Newbern  is  famed  for  its  Indian  corn,  peanut,  sweet 
potato,  and  melon  trade  with  the  North  ;  Albemarle 
Sound  for  its  fisheries, — more  than  a  million  of  herrings 
are  sometimes  caught  there  at  a  single  haul. 

Memphis  and  Chattanooga,  in  Tennessee,  have  not 
been  surpassed  in  the  rapidity  of  their  rise  as  places  of 
importance  by  any  towns  of  their  size  in  the  South. 
The  former  derives  its  imi)ortance  from  its  situation  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi;  the  latter,  from  its  situa- 
tion at  the  junction  and  crossing  of  a  grand  system  of 
railroads.  Memphis  is  the  chief  cotton  port  for  the 
planters  of  North  Alabama  and  Mississipj)!,  who  send 
their  crops  there  to  be  shipped  by  steamboat  to  New 
Orleans.  Norfolk  has  of  late  become  the  chief  shipping 
port  of  Tennessee  ;  for  she  sends,  by  rail,  more  cotton 
to  Norfolk  for  shipment  thence  by  sea,  than  she  sends 
to  New  Orleans  via  Memphis  and  the  Mississippi  river. 

The  Tennessee  river  is  navigable  from  its  mouth  up 
to  Florence,  Alabama,  at  the  foot  of  Muscle  Shoals.' 


5o 


SOUTH    CAROLINA    AND    GEORGIA.—FLORIDA. 


Tliese  celebrated  rapids— twelve  or  fifteen  miles  long — are  formed  b  y  llie 
river  as  its  waters  rush  over  that  remarkable  vein  of  limestone  which  gives 
us  elsewhere  tlie  Falls  of  Niagara. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the  navigation  of  these  rapids  by  a 
canal  like  that  round  the  falls  of  the  Ohio  at  Louisville.  United  States  en- 
gineers are  now  at  work  upon  them.  These  officers,  coming  from  the  severer 
climates  of  the  North,  are  charmed  with  the  lovely  climates  and  tine  coun- 
try here. 

This  river  drains  16,000  square  miles  of  country 
above  the  Muscle  Shoals,  with  825  miles  of  natural 
navigation,  which  is  capable,  with  inexpensive  improve- 
ments, of  being  extended  to  1300  miles. 

The  advantages  of  this  section  of  the  country  over 
the  Northwest  must  have  their  weight  ;  and  when  it  is 
more  generally  known  that  its  climate  permits  the 
Malaga  grape,  the  fig,  and  the  pomegranate  to  flourish 
in  the  open  air,  immigration  must  be  turned  to  the  Ten- 
nessee valley  in  the  vicinity  of  Chattanooga  and  Hunts- 
ville. 

The  vast  resources  of  this  lovely  valley,  as  an  agri- 
cultural and  stock-growing  district,  are  demonstrated 
by  the  fact  that  upon  them  both  armies  subsisted  for 
nearly  two  years  during  the  late  war. 

The  coal  deposits  of  Hamilton  and  Roan  counties, 
in  this  State,  are  enormous,  and  the  coal  is  of  a  (juality 
equal  to  the  best  Pittsburg  coal  for  all  purposes. 

South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

South  Carolina  and  Georgia  resemble  each  other  in 
climate.  The}^  both  front  on  the  Atlantic  and  abut 
against  the  mountains.  Their  industries  arc  the  same, 
and  we  speak  of  them  together. 

South  Carolina  takes  the  lead  in  the  production  of 
rice.  Of  all  the  Southern  States,  she  and  Georgia  were 
the  foremost  with  railroads. 

The  University  of  South  Carolina  is  in  Columbia,  a 
beautiful  countr}^  town  and  an  elegant  capital. 

Charleston  is  the  principal  city  and  chief  seaport 
town  of  the  State,  but  like  all  Southern  ports,  the  en- 
trance to  it,  for  large  ships,  is  obstructed  by  a  bar. 

The  palmetto  grows  in  the  streets  of  Charleston.  As  an  emblem  of 
sovereignty  it  was  borne  on  the  shield  of  the  State ;  for  that  reason  she  is 
called  the  Palmetto  State.     The  palmetto  is  a  tree-palm. 

or  all  trees,  those  of  this  family  are  the  most  useful  and  beautiful.  Among 
its  varieties— of  which  there  are  not  less  than  60  in  the  "  New  World," 
which  are  entirely  unknown  in  the  "  Old" — are  found  specimens  which  fur- 
nish man  with  food  and  shelter,  with  weapons  and  garments. 

The  shores  of  Georgia  and  the  south  coast  of  Carolina 
are  curtained  with  the  "  Sea  Islands,"  which  are  cele- 
brated for  a  superior  kind  of  cotton,  called  the  "  Sea 
Island"  cotton. 

This  cotton,  formerly  growing  only  in  these  Islands,  is  now  also  culti- 
vated very  successfully  in  Soutlieastern  Texas  and  Southern  Louisiana,  near 


in  C  E      P I^  A  N  T . 


the  Gulf  Coast.  It  has  a  long  silky  fibre,  and  is  chiefly  used  in  Europe, 
especially  in  Brussels,  for  the  manufacture  of  laces  and  other  fine  fabrics.  It 
is  sold  at  four  or  five  times  the  ordinary  value  of  other  cotton. 

Rice  is  one  of  the  chief  staples  of 
both  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

In  Georgia  the  seasons  are  so  far  in 
advance  even  of  those  no  farther  north 
than  Virginia,  that  it  is  no  unusual 
thing  to  see  green  peas  and  strawberries 
grown  in  the  open  air  and  lit  for  table 
use,  in  March. 

The  State  University  is  at  Athens. 
Augusta  and  Atlanta  are  celebrated  for 
their  workshops.     Georgia  is  more  ex- 
tensively  engaged    in  manufacturing   than   any    other 
Southern  State. 

The  gold  mines  of  Georgia,  as  well  as  those  of  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia,  have  been  worked  with  prolit, 
and  before  the  gold  mines  of  California  had  revealed 
their  richer  treasures,  the}' were  considered  very  rich. 

The  climates  of  Georgia,  on  account  of  its  low  latitude 
on  one  hand  and  its  high  mountains  on  the  other,  are 
very  varied. 

The  hill  country  of  Georgia,  like  that  of  Tennessee, 
produces  the  finest  of  wheat,  while  the  rice  delights  in 
the  low  country  along  the  coast. 

Savannah  is  the  chief  city  of  Georgia. 


BAT     VIEW      or     SAVANNAH. 


Florida. 

Florida  has  the  mildest  climate  of  all  these  States. 
It  fronts  both  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  on  the  Atlantic, 
and  though  its  winters  are  too  warm  for  frost,  its  sum- 


ALABAMA    AND    MISSISSIPPI. 


5l 


mers  are  so  tempered  by  the  sea-breezes  and  the  ocean 
that  the  heat  is  less  oppressive  there  than  it  is  in  New 
York  and  other  States. 

Though  the  Spaniards  established  a  settlement  at  San  Augustine,  in 
Florida,  long  before  any  otlier  Europeans  had  begun  to  found  colonies  in 
America,  this  State  is  so  thinly  settled  at  this  day  that  there  is  only  one  in- 
habitant for  eve:y  300  acres  of  land  ;  in  New  York  there  is  one  for  eveiy  6^ 
acres. 

Florida  is  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  all  that  is 
grown  in  the  four  other  Atlantic  States  immediately  to 
the  north  of  it,  with  the  addition  of  the  sugar-cane,  of 
intertropical  fruits,  and  even  of  coffee  in  favored  spots. 

Florida  is  famous  for  its  oranges  and  other  fruits.  The  sweet  potato  pro- 
duces there  until  killed  by  the  frost,  and  in  the  soulhera  parts  the  people  gather 
it  from  the  same  patch,  witliout  replanting,  for  two  or  three  years  consecu- 
tively, and  until  there  comes  a  killing  frost,  so  mild  is  the  climate.  This 
Stale  is  mountainless,  but  abounds  in  swamps  and  everglades,  and  its 
live-oak  forests  are  one  of  its  chief  ornaments. 

Live-oak  is  the  hardest,  the  heaviest,  and  most  durable  of  woods ;  it  is 
considered  well-nigh  impervious  to  decay,  and  is,  on  that  account  and  for  its 
strength,  extensively  used  in  ship-building. 

The  soil  of  the  country  is  of  limestone  and  coral  form- 
ation. It  abounds  in  beautiful  lakes  and  clear,  deep 
s})rings. 

Some  of  the  latter,  of  lake-like  proportions,  are  deep  enough  to  float  a  line- 
of-battle  ship,  yet  so  limpid  that  the  pebbles  can  be  distinctly  seen  on  the 
bottom. 

The  Gulf  Stream  sweeps  around  this  State  and  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  great  Bahama  banks  and  islands,  which 
are  also  of  coral — making  navigation  dangerous. 

The  Dry  Tortwjas,  off  the  coast  of  Florida,  belong  to 
the  United  States,  and  are  fortified. 

Key  West  is  a  famous  wrecking  station,  where  the 
property  rescued  fi"om  shipwreck  is  brought  to  be  dis- 
po.'^ed  of.  Pensacola  has  the  deepest  water  of  any 
liarbor  on  the  Gulf-coast  of  the  United  States.  The 
Government  has  a  navy-yard  there. 

Questions. — Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  docs  Virginia  lie?— 
What  is  the  length  of  her  co:',st-line? — What  part  of  Virginia  lies  in  the  Mis- 
.nssippi  Valley  V — Tliio.igli  what  rivers  is  it  drained  into  the  Mississippi 
river?— \v'liat  parts  of  the  Old  World  are  in  the  latitudes  of  Virginia? — 
Which  of  them  resemble  her  most  in  climate  ? — AVhatis  the  chief  ditfereuce? 
— Descri*x!  the  mountains  in  Virginia. 

Name  some  of  their  oiTiamental  woods  and  medicinal  plants. — What  are 
the  principal  rivers  in  Virginia? — Which  empty  into  the  Chesapeake?  — 
Where  do',M  New  river  ri.se  and  empty  ? — The  Tennessee  ? 

How  far  are  the  rivers,  that  are  tributary  to  the  Chesapeake,  navigable  ?— 
What,  from  their  source  to  the  head  of  tide-water,  is  tiieir  total  fall? — What, 
the  distance  ? 

What  kind  of  coal  is  mined  near  Richmond  ? — Where  is  Staunton,  and 
for  wiiatis  it  noted? — Fredericksburg? — Where  is  William  and  Maiy  Col- 
lege ? — Where  is  the  University  of  Virginia? — Where, Washington  College, 
and  the  Virginia  Military  Institute? — Point  out  the  places  where  they  are, 
and  tell  their  bearings  from  Richmond. — What  is  said  of  Norfolk  harbor? 
—  What  can  you  say  about  Richmond?  —  Petersburg?  —  Lynchburg?  — 
Staunton  ? 

What  State  has  the  finest  marble  in  Hie  United  States? — Where  and  what 


is  the  highest  peak  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  ? — Where  is  the  University 
of  North  Carolina? — What  can  you  tell  about  Wilmington? — Newbern? — 
The  fisheries  of  Albemarle  Sound? — In  what  rural  industries  does  Tennessee 
particularly  excel  ? 

To  what  do  you  ascribe  the  rapid  rise  and  importance  of  Memphis  and 
Chattanooga? — Does  Tennessee  export  most  cotton  via  New  Orleans  or 
Norfolk? — To  what  town  is  the  Tennessee  river  navigable  from  its  mouth? 
— Where  are  the  Muscle  Shoals  ? 

Upon  what  vein  of  rock  are  the  Muscle  Shoals? — How  far  is  the  river 
navigable  above  them  ? — What  is  the  area  of  its  valley  above  them  ? — What 
account  do  the  officers  of  the  engineer  corps  of  the  army  give  of  this  valley  ?— 
Of  its  climates? — Of  its  agricultural  and  mineral  resources? — In  what  part  of 
the  State  are  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  rivei's  ? 

How  do  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  resemble  each  other? — In  what 
branch  of  industry  does  South  Carolina  take  the  lead  of  Georgia  ? — In  what 
line  of  improvements  are  these  two  States  ahead  of  the  other  Southern  States? 
— Where  is  the  University  of  South  Carolina  ? — Wliy  is  South  Carolina  called 
the  "Palmetto  State?"— Are  there  many  varieties  of  the  palm-tree  ? — How 
many  are  there  in  the  New  World? — Where  does  the  Sea  Island  cotton 
grow  ? — What  is  it  used  for? 

How,  as  compared  with  those  in  Virginia,  are  the  seasons  in  Georgia  ? — 
Where  is  the  State  University  of  Georgia  ? — For  what  are  Augusta  and  At- 
lanta noted  ? — Which  of  the  Southern  States  is  most  extensively  engaged  in 
manufacturing? — What  part  of  Georgia  is  best  for  wheat? — What  for  rice? 

How  does  Florida  compare  in  density  of  population  with  New  York? — 
Is  Florida  tliickly  settled  ? — What  can  you  cultivate  in  Florida  that  cannot 
profitably  be  grown  in  Georgia  and  the  States  north  ? — What  delicious  fruit 
is  abundantly  cultivated  in  Florida? — Describe  the  face  of  the  country. — The 
springs. — What  excellent  ship-timber  abounds  there? — How  is  Florida  sep- 
arated from  the  Bahama  Islands? — What  makes  the  navigation  along  Floiida 
coast  so  dangerous  ? — Where  are  the  Dry  Tortugas  ? — Where  is  Key  West  ? — 
For  what  is  it  noted  ? 


LESSOJV   XXXI. 

Southern  States — Continued. 

Al.vbama  and  Mississippi. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  hilly  regions  in  the  north- 
oast  corner  of  Alabama,  tlie  face  of  the  countiy  in  these 
two  States  is  similar.  Their  latitude  and  climates  are 
tilso  much  the  same.  Cotton  is  their  staple  })roduction, 
ill  which  they  excel  all  the  other  States,  as  Alabama 
and  Tennessee  did,  iiccording  to  the  census  of  1860 
in  the  |)roduetioii  of  corn. 

The  pine  forests  and  cypress  swamps  of  North  Caro- 
lina extend  all  the  way  along  the  coast  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  and  even  beyond. 

The  Mississippi  river,  as  it  flows  through  the  lowlands 
of  the  South,  is  prevented,  in  many  places,  from  over- 
flowing its  banks  and  converting  these  low  grounds  into 
swamps,  by  embankments  called  levees.  In  this  way  a 
vast  extent  of  land,  remarkable  for  its  fertility,  has  been 
reclaimed. 

These  reclaimed  lands  were  known  as  the  "Mississippi  bottoms." 
Before  the  levees  were  constructed,  the  whole  an^a  of  lands  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  subject  to  overflows,  and  therefore  unsalable,  was  estimated  to 


52 


LOUISIANA. 


SCENE     ON     THE     MISSISSIPPI     RIVEB. 


be  not  less  than  34  millions  of  acres.    The  State  of  New  York  does  not  con- 
tain as  much  as  34  millions  of  acres. 

The  rain-fall  in  the  Southern  parts  of  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Louisiana  (60  inches)  is  nearly  twice  as 
heavy  as  it  is  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  in 
Georgia  and  Florida  on  the  one  side,  and  in  Texas  on  the 
other.  It  is  greater  than  in  any  part  of  the  country  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  University  of 
Alabama  is  at  Tusca- 
loosa, and  that  of  Mis- 
sissippi, at  Oxford. 
The  latter  has  been 
successfully  revived 
since  the  war. 

Alabama  has  rich  de- 
posits of  coal  and  iron,, 
but  Mississippi  lacks 
coal,  and  is  poor  in 
metallic  ores  of  all 
sorts. 

Mobile  is  one  of  the 
two  gulf  ports  from 
which  most  of  the  cot- 
ton produced  in  these 
States,  as  well  as  in 
those  of  Louisiana  and 
Arkansas,  finds  its  way  to  the  sea  and  to  distant  ports. 

Louisiana. 


Creoles,  a  term  that  has  been  bor- 
rowed by  the  natives  generally,  who 
call  themselves  Creoles  instead  of  na- 
tive Louisianians. 

Louisiana  was  purchased  from 
France  in  1803,  chiefly  to  secure  a 
free  outlet  to  the  sea  ;  but,  in  the  pur- 
chase, was  included  all  the  country 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  even  as  far 
as  the  Pacific  Ocean,  except  Califor- 
nia, Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona. 
During  the  war,  when  the  people 
of  the  South  were  suffering  for  the 
want  of  salt,  the  usual  supplies  of 
which,  except  in  Virginia,  being  cut 
off,  an  island  of  excellent  rock  salt 
was  discovered  on  the  coast  of  Louisi- 
ana. It  continues  to  be  profitably  and  extensively 
mined. 

New  Orleans  is  the  great  emporium  and  produce 
market  of  the  South  and  West.  It  exports  more  cotton 
than  any  other  seaport  town  in  the  world.  At  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  its  levees  are  piled  up  with  produce 
that  has  been  sent  there  from  the  up-country  for  ex- 


NEW      ORLKANf 


L 


I^ouisiana  was  settled  by  the  Spaniards  and  French  : 
the  descendants  there  of  the  latter  are  called  French 


portation,  and  its  wharves  nre  lined  for  miles  with 
steamboats,  shijjping.  and  other  craft  that  are  engaged 
in  the  carrying  trade. 

The  waters  of  the  Mississippi  are  veiy  smooth  ;  the  tall   frees  and  thick 
forests  on  the  banks  break  the  violence  of  the  winds,  therefore  the  Mississippi 


_J 


TEXAS.— ARKANSAS.— NEW    MEXICO     AND    INDIAN    TERRITORY. 


53 


steamboats  are  built  to  stand  high  out  of  the  water.    Some  of  them  are  like 
floating  palaces,  the^^  are  so  large  and  splendid. 

All  along  the  banks  of  this  river,  and  those  of  its  navigable  tributaries, 
the  business  of  cutting  and  hauling  wood  for  these  steamers  (for  wood  is 
their  favorite  fuel)  is  an  important  branch  of  industry.  It  was  worth,  before 
the  war,  seven  or  eight  millions  of  dollars  annually.  The  industry  and  en- 
ergies of  the  people  of  this  State  are  directed  chiefly  to  the  cultivation  of 
cotton  and  sugar.  The  climates  along  the  Gulf-coast  are  semi-tropical,  and 
many  of  the  fruits  and  flowers  of  the  torrid  zone,  such  as  the  magnolia- 
grandiflora,  the  orange,  pomegranate,  and  fig,  flourish  there  in  great  beauty 
and  perfection. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Red  river  to  the  Gulf  the  level  of  the  Mississippi 
and  its  outlets — called  Bayous— is  higher  than  that  of  the  adjacent  country. 
There  the  drainage  is  from  and  not  toward  the  water-courses.  There  the 
people  say, ''  Let  us  go  up  to  the  river,"  instead  of  "  down"  to  it,  as  we  do. 
In  this  low  and  flat  country,  called  "  the  coast,"  the  river  banks  are  the  highest 
lauds.  The  palm-leaf  fims  that  you  use  in  summer  come  from  these  swamps 
and  niai-shes,  with  tiieir  exuberant  vegetation. 

The  depression  of  the  country  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi, 
south  of  the  Red  river,  exposes  it  to  fearful  floods  and  inundations. 

In  the  lowlands  and  swamps,  from  North  Carolina,  extending  along  the 
seaboard,  and  for  many  miles  l)ack  in  the  interior,  all  the  way  to  Texas,  the 
forest-trees  of  the  South  arc  drai)ed  in  gray  moss,  a  parasite  that  hangs  down 
in  long  and  graceful  fest(jons  from  the  branches,  imparting  to  the  forest 
scenery  a  striking  and  picturesque  feature. 

This  is  the  moss  which  is  so  extensively  used  in  upholstery  for  beds, 
cushions,  and  mattresses. 

Texas. 

Texas  lies  between  the  parallels  of  26°  and  36°  30'. 
It  is  the  large.st  State,  as  to  area,  in  the  Union,  though 
it  has  a  population  of  less  than  seven  persons  for  every 
square  mile — Massachusetts,  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
five.  Texas  is  thirty-five  times  the  size  of  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Texas  was  formerly  a  part  of  Mexico  ;  she  separated  from  that  country  in 
1837;  her  independence  was  acknowledged,  and  then,  in  1845,  she  was  an- 
nexed to  the  United  States. 

In  Northern  Texas  the  atmosphere  is  dry,  and  the 
quantity  of  rain  which  falls  there  annually  is  small, 

A  dry  climate  makes  hot  summers  and  cold  winters,  a  fact  which  will  be 
explained  in  the  Plij-sical  Geography,  but  which  should  be  remembered,  for 
it  will  serve  you  as  a  key  to  the  climates  of  many  countries. 

In  some  parts  of  Texas  the  climate  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton  and 
sugar  ;  in  others,  to  corn,  the  olive,  and  the  vine. 
Texas  is  also  a  fine  grazing  and  wool-growing  |^J 
country. 

San  Antonio  is  the  oldest  town  in  Texas. 
Houston  is  a  flourishing  shipping  port  for  a  large 
section  of  rich  country.  Galveston  is  the  chief 
port  of  Texas,  as  it  has  a  fine  harbor. 

The  dry  part  of  the  State  begins  with  the 
celebrated  "Llano  Estacado"  (the  staked  plain) 
already  spoken  of,  that  borders  Texas  and  New 
Mexico.  It  is  about  200  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  300  from  north  to  south. 

Texas  is  famed  for  its  beautiful  prairies  and 


the  Severity  of  its  north  winds.  These  come  on  at  times 
so  suddenly  in  winter,  and  are  so  cold  and  severe,  that 
both  man  and  beast  have  been  known  to  perish  in 
them. 

There  are,  in  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  also  in  the  In- 
dian Territory,  vast  plains  which  abound  in  prairie 
dogs,  buffalo,  wild  deer,  and  other  game, 

Arkansas. 

Arkansas  abounds  in  swamps  and  lowlands.  About 
one-fourth  of  the  State  was  liable  to  overflow  before  the 
system  of  leveeing  the  Mississippi  Avas  commenced.  The 
famous  Red  river  raft,  which  was  so  instructive  to  the 
geologists  of  Europe,  is  in  Louisiana,  near  this  State. 

There  the  driftwood  has  lodged  for  ages.  In  that  warm  climate  plants, 
vines,  and  creepers  soon  began  to  take  root  upon  this  mass  of  trees  and  logs 
which  covered  the  river  fnjni  one  side  to  the  other.  Presently  trees  began 
to  grow  upon  it :  these,  with  their  roots,  tendrils,  and  branches,  bound  this 
drift  matter  in  one  compact  mass.  It  extends  miles  up  the  river,  which  dis- 
appears from  view  as  it  flows  under  the  raft,  near  Shreveport. 

Arkansas  has  but  few  towns,  and  none  of  them  are 
large ;  thus  indicating  that  her  industry  is  rural. 

The  western  part  of  the  State  is  a  good  grass  coun- 
try, and,  among  its  mineral  resources,  it  has  a  (juarry 
of  the  most  valuable  whetstones  known  to  commerce. 
Valuable  deposits  of  zinc,  coal,  iron,  lead,  and  anti- 
mony, with  perhaps  copper  and  silver,  are  also  known 
to  exist  within  its  boundaries. 

The  hot  springs  of  Arkansas  are  celebrated  for  their 
medicinal  virtues. 

New  Mexico  and  Indian  Territory. 

These  territories  are  both  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  same  parallel,  of  37°.      Congress  set  apart  this  In- 


PEAIRIE     DOG     VILLAGE. 


54 


NEW    MEXICO    AND    INDIAN    TERRITORY. 


dian  territory,  and  gave  it  to  the  red-men  and  their 
descendants,  to  be  occupied  and  governed  forever  in 
their  own  way.  The  Cherokees,  Chickasaws  {cMck'a- 
saws),  Chocktaws,  Creeks,  and  Serainoles,  are  the  most 
noted  of  these  tribes.  They  till  the  soil,  and  have  a 
constitutional  government,  schools,  and  churches. 

Tahlequah  {tah'le-kwah),  the  chief  town,  is  in  the  Chero- 
kee division.  Some  members  of  this  tribe  have  elegantly 
furnished  houses,  are  accomplished  in  manner,  and  re- 
fined in  taste.  Some  of  their  neighbors,  however,  in 
the  old-fashioned  wa}'  of  their  fathers,  still  scour  the 
plains  in  search  of  game  and  adventure. 


SCENE    IN     NEW     MEXICO, 


New  Mexico  was  formerly  a  part  of  Mexico,  and  was 
settled  by  emigrants  from  that  country.  Spanish  is  still 
the  language  in  most  common  use. 

Its  landscapes  abound  in  grand  and  imposing  scenery, 
but  they  too  frequently  lack  the  charm  of  green  pas- 
tures and  still  waters.  The  face  of  the  country  is  often 
as  dreary  and  wild  as  naked  rocks  and  barren  wastes 
can  make  it ;  but,  wherever  there  is  water,  the  soil  is, 
as  it  is  in  the  Indian  Territory,  exceedingly  fertile. 

Certain  varieties  of  potato  thrive  in  New  Mexico. 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  the  small  grains  do  well. 
Onions,  cymlings,  and  melons  attain  to  an  enormous  size, 


and  great  excellence  in  flavor.     The  grape  commences 
to  ripen  in  July  and  ceases  in  October. 

The  celebrated  "  El  Paso"  wine — a  superior  kind  of  Madeira — is  made  from 
this  grape. 

The  olive  and  the  date  would  do  w.ll  in  that  country. 

Near  Las  Vegas,  in  New  Mexico,  are  some  celebrated  hot  springs.     There 

is  a  cluster  of  thirty  or  forty  of  them,  of  various  temperatures,  from  80°  to  140°. 

Near  the  city  of  Colorado  are  four  remarkable  soda-springs,  which,  within 

a  short  distance  of  each  other,  come  bubbling  and  boiling  out  of  the  earth 

as  though  they  were  fresh  from  the  fountain. 

Zuni  is  a  small  Indian  village,  situated  in  a  desolate  region. 

There  are  some  remarkable  ruins  in  its  vicinity,  supposed  to  be  the 
habitations  of  a  former  generation,  made  desolate  by  famine  or  pestilence. 

Questions. — Which  are  the  five  Gulf  States  ? — Which  has 
the  most  hill  country,  Alabama  or  Mississippi  ? — Has  either  of 
them  any  mountains? — How  are  the  climates  ? — What  arc  their 
staple  productions? — In  what  brancli  of  industry  do  these  States 
excel  all  others  ? — How  far  do  the  pitch-pine  forests  extend  ? — 
Can  3'ou  give  an  example  of  tlie  effect  tliat  soil  and  climate 
have  upon  the  industries  of  people  ? — How,  since  the  Missis- 
sippi river  is  higher  than  the  country  a  little  way  back,  is  it 
prevented  from  overflowing  its  banks  at  high  water,  and 
drowning  these  low  grounds  ? — What  are  the  "  bottoms  ?" — 
levees? — What,  before  tlie  levees  were  built,  was  the  area  of 
land  in  the  Mississij)pi  valley  tliat  was  subject  to  overflow  ? — 
What  part  of  the  country'  on  tliis  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
receives  the  heaviest  rain-fall  ? — What  is  the  depth  of  tliis  fall 
in  inches  ? 

What  State  has  the  largest  city  in  the  South  ? — What  city, 
of  all  in  the  countrj',  exports  the  most  cotton  ? — How  far  from 
New  Orleans  to  tlie  Gulf?  (Sec  map.) — Describe  the  appearance 
of  the  city. — W'hy  are  the  Mississippi  steamboats  built  to  stand 
high  out  of  the  water?— To  what  important  branch  of  industry 
have  the  steamboats  of  the  West  given  rise  ? — What  are  the 
two  chief  branches  of  industry  in  Louisiana? — Which  way  does 
the  cotton  go  for  a  market  ?  Am. — Largely  abroad. — How  ar<} 
the  climates  of  Louisiana? — What  tropical  fruits  and  flowers 
tlourisli  tliere  ? — Describe  the  lowland  forests  along  the  sca- 
l)oard  from  Nortli  Carolina  to  Texas. — Wliat  use  is  made  of 
this  parasite? — By  whom  was  Louisiana  settled? — When  and 
from  whom  was  Louisiana  purchased  ? — What  was  the  main 
object  of  this  purchase  ?— What  extent  of  territory  was  in- 
cluded in  this  purchase? — What  valuable  mineral  deposit  was 
recently  discovered  in  Louisiana? 

Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  does  Texas  lie?— 
(See  Map,  p.  57.)— How  does  it  compare  with  the  other  Statei 
as  to  area?— W'hat  poptdation  does  it  average  to  the  square 
n^ile? — How  many  times  larger  than  Massaciiusetts  is  Texas? 
— Suppose  it  were  as  thickly  inhabited,  how  large  would  its  population 
be?_When  was  Texas  annexed ?— Which  is  the  driest  part  of  Texas?— 
What  effect  has  a  dry  atmosphere  on  the  summer  and  winter  temperature 
of  a  countiy ?— What  is  the  chief  port  of  this  State?— WHience  are  the 
rivers  that  flow  through  the  diy  parts  of  Texas  fed?— How  large  is 
Llano  Estacado  (staked  plain)  ?— How  high  is  it  above  the  sea-level  ?  (See 
map.) — What  wind  is  particularly  severe  in  Texas?— Are  tliere  any  plains 
in  Texas  ? — What  animals  do  you  find  upon  them  ? 

How  much  of  Arkansas  is  liable  to  overflow  ?— Describe  the  Red  River  raft. 
—What  is  the  industry  of  the  State  ?— Its  minerals  ?— Its  springs  ? 
How  are  New  Mexico  and  Indian  Territorj'  situated  as  to  latitude  ? 
By  whom,  and  for  what  purpose,  was  Indian  Territoiy  set  apart  ?— De- 
scribe the  Indian  settlements. — Chief  town. — Habits  of  Indians. 

To  what  power  did  New  Mexico  once  belong?— What  language  is  in  use  ? 
— Its  scenery? — Soil  and  products? 

What  is  the  "El  Paso"  wine  ?— Wh;ii  is  said  of  Zuni? 


56 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAPS    OF    THE    SOUTHERN    STATES. 


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58 


THE    GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE   WESTERN    STATES. 


LESSOJV    XXXIII. 

The  Western  States  and  Territories. — Their  Geographical 
Position  and  Features.    (Maps,  pp.  67,  73.) 

Total  Population,  14,813,713. 


State. 


West  Virginia. ... 

Ohio 

Kentucky 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Missouri 

Iowa , 

Minnesota 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

Montana  Territory. 
Dakota  " 

Wyoming        " 


Capital?. 


Wheeling  . . . 
Columbus  . . . 
Frankfort  ... 
Indianapolis  . 
Springfield. . . 

Lansing 

Madison 

Jefferson  City 
Des  Moines. . 

St.  Paul 

Topeka 

Lincoln 

Denver 

Helena 

Yankton  . . . . 
Cheyenne. . . . 


Chief  Cities  and  their 
Population. 


Wheeling 19,380 

Cincinnati 216,2o9 

Louisville lOO,?');} 

Indianapolis 48,214 

Chicago 298,977 

Detroit 79,577 

Milwaukee 71,440 

St.  Louis 310,8(54 

Dubuque ]8,4;J4 

St.  Paul 20,030 

Leavenworth  . . .    17,893 

Omaha 1(;,08;J 

Denver 4,750 

Helena 3,106 

Yankton 737 

Cheyenne 1,450 


1.  Position  and  Orography. — These  States  and 
Territories  are  all  inland,  and  all  of  them,  excepting 
Michigan,  give  rise  to  streams  that  empty  into  the 
Mississippi  river  ;  they  occupy  what  is  often  called  the 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley.  They  also  embrace  portions 
of  the  two  great  watersheds,  which  are  formed  by  the 
Rocky  Mountains  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Alleghanios 
on  the  other,  so  as  to  carry  their  waters  off  into  ihe 
Mississippi,  which  lies  between  them  as  a  gutter,  and 
delivers  the  drainage  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This 
river,  therefore,  occupies  the  line  of  lowest  level  (see 
the  Orographic  Yiew^  of  the  United  States,  p.  30)  that 
can  be  drawn  from  north  to  south  along  the  valley 
drained  by  it. 

2.  Course  of  the  3lississippi. — You  observe  that 
the  Mississippi  does  not  occupy  the  middle  of  this  valley, 
it  is  far  to  the  east  of  the  middle,  winding  along,  especially 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  not  very  far  from  the  out- 
lying ridge  of  the  Alleghanies. 

The  geographical  conclusions  that,  with  the  orographic  view  and  the  map 
of  the  United  States  before  you,  you  are  able  to  draw  from  this  fact,  are  : — 

1st. — That  the  eastern  tributaries  of  the  great  river,  as  compared  with  the 
western,  are  more  rapid  in  their  descent. 

2d. — That  they  are  not  navigable  to  so  great  a  distance. 

3d. — That  the  plains  watered  by  them  are  not  as  broad  or  as  long  as  arc 
those  through  which  the  more  gentle  streams  of  the  -western  watershed  flow. 

4th. — That  when  heavy  rains  occur,  these  long  and  gentle  streams  of  the 
West  require  more  time  than  do  the  shorter  and  more  rapid  streams  of  the 
East,  to  discharge  their  floods  into  the  main  gutter — the  Mississippi  river  itself 

3.  Climates. — The  Orographic  Yiew  shows  all  this, 


and  more  ;  it  shows  that  these  States  and  Territories, 
all  lying  between  the  parallels  of  36°  30'  and  A9°,  are 
separated  from  the  sea  by  a  range  of  mountains  on 
the  east  and  on  the  west ;  and  you  have  already  learned 
enough  about  the  influences  which  regulate  climates, 
to  teach  you  that  the  differences  of  climate  among  these 
States  and  Territories  are  to  be  accounted  for  chiefly  by 
mere  difference  of  latitude  and  elevation,  regardless  of 
their  distance  from  the  sea. 

You  may  also  infer  that  those  portions  of  these  States  that  lie  along  the 
margins  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  great  lakes  are  the  warmest,  because  the 
lowest,  while  those  parts  that  lie  among  the  hills  wliieh  give  rise  to  its  tribu- 
taries are  the  highest,  and  therefore  the  coldest,  the  latitude  being  the  same. 

4.  Cfmfinental  Sf opes  and  Drains,— You  may  observe,  by  look- 
ing at  the  map  of  North  America  a  little  mort'  closely,  that  from  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  the  continent  is  divided  into  two  grand  water- 
sheds, whicli,  together,  include  all  the  minor  ones  that  we  have  hitherto  con- 
sidered; and  that,  near  the  parallel  of  50°  north,  and  extending  across  our 
continent  fiom  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  there  is  a  ridge  which  divides 
the  whole  country  into  two  grand  watersheds,  one  of  which  inclines  to  the 
Qorth,  and  drains  the  waters  off  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  its  Bays ;  the  other 
inclines  toward  the  south,  and  drains  off  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Gulf  of  Me.xieo,  or  into  the  South  Sea,  as  the  Pacilie  was  called.  The  head- 
waters of  these  two  drains — the  Mississippi  and  the  Red  Kiver — rise  about 
1,000  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior. 

The  distance  between  them  is  short,  as  it  is  between  the  Saskatchawau 
and  Athabasca,  So  if  there  was  a  canal  across  these  two  narrow  portages, 
an  Indian  entering  the  ^Mackenzie,  from  the  Arctic;  Ocean,  in  his  bark  canoe, 
might,  after  ascending  that  river  and  passing  these  two  canals,  descend  the 
Mississippi  into  the  Gulf  of  Me.xieo,  and  so  pass  by  fresh  water  channels  from 
the  regions  ol' eternal  winter  to  perpetual  summer. 

The  ascent  to  the  top  of  this  ridge  would  be  about  1,000  feet,  and  the 
descent  as  much;  the  descent  from  St.  Louis  to  the  Gulf  being  over  380  feet 

From  Minnesota  to  Ihe  Atlantic  this  ridge  seems  to  have  been  depressed 
and  hollowed  out,  as  it  were,  to  make  a  cistern  tipon  the  top  of  it,  and  form  a 
basin  there  for  the  great  lakes.  The  St.  Lawrence  is  the  gutter  for  draining 
these  lakes ;  it  carries  the  water  off  to  the  east  and  empties  it  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

3.  Favored  Position. — The  regions  occupied  by 
the  Western  States  are  the  granaries  of  the  country. 
Every  year  they  satisfy  the  land  with  bread  ;  and  after 
it  is  fllled,  they  have  enough  to  relieve  famine  abroarl. 

6.  Population. — The  thirteen  Western  States  occupy  an  area  of 
767,000  square  miles,  and  have  a  population  of  19  persons  to  the  square  mile, 
or  an  average  of  31  acres  per  inliabitant. 

Belgium,  which  does  not  lie  in  such  sunny  climes,  and  whose  soil  is  no 
more  generous,  averages  only  an  acre  and  a  half  per  head  for  her  inhabitants. 

According  to  this  ratio,  there  is  yet  in  these  Western  States,  exclusive  of 
the  Territories,  room  for  more  than  290,000,000  of  people. 

The  extent  of  their  grassy  plains  and  prairies,  the  cheapness  of  the  lands, 
the  facility  with  which  they  are  brought  under  cultivation,  together  with  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  are  the  attractions  which  direct  immigraticm  to  this  part 
of  the  countiy  in  preference  to  any  other  portion  of  our  wide  domains. 

7.  Supply  of  Water. — The  winter  rains  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  to  be  treated  of  at  another  time,  turn  to 
snow  on  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  there  the  snow  re- 
mains as  a  reservoir  to  feed  the  rivers  when  it  melts  iu 
spring  and  summer.  Now,  when  the  heavy  rains  of  the 
spring  and  early  summer  happen  to  flood  the  eastern 


WEST    VIRGINIA. 


59 


tributaries  at  the  time  that  the  tributaries  from  the  west 
are  discharging  great  volumes,  arising  from  a  thaw  in 
the  mountains,  the  Mississippi  river  receives  two  floods 
at  once. 

The  river  sometimes  swells  over  with  these  floods  and 
attains  the  proportions  of  a  sea.  In  the  spring-flood  of 
1 867,  the  Mississippi  was  estimated  to  be,  at  Memphis, 
more  than  40  miles  broad. 

8.  Prairies  and  Plains. — The  most  striking  fea- 
ture of  the  Western  States  is  the  size  and  picturesque 
loveliness  of  their  treeless  plains.  They  are  covered  with 
grass,  gay  with  flowers,  and  alive  with  herds  of  wild 
cattle.  On  the  east  side  of  the  Mississippi  they  arc 
called  prairies,  and  on  the  west  side,  plains.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota 
is  a  level  country,  and  the  plains  stretch  out  to  the 
declivities  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

f).  Products. — The  Western  States  are  a  grazing  and 
agricultural  country,  and  the  staple  productions  arc 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley  ;  potatoes  and  culinary- 
vegetables  ;  with  hemp,  grapes,  fruits,  and  tobacco.  The 
soil  and  climate  are  also  admirably  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  sorghum,  or  Chinese  sugar-cane,  which  is 
rapidly  assuming  in  its  cultivation  the  proportions  of 
an  agricultural  staple. 

The  people  of  the  W^estern  States  are  also  extensively 
engaged  in  wool-growing,  and  in  raising  cattle,  horses, 
beef,  and  hogs.  The  annual  wool-clip  both  in  Ohio 
and  in  Michigan  is  very  great. 

JO.  Minerals. — The  Western  States  and  Territories 
are  richer  than  the  Southern  States  in  minerals.  The 
coal-fields  of  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois, 
are  the  largest  and  the  most  bountifully  stored  in  the 
world.  They  embrace  an  area  of  many  thousand 
square  miles. 

There  arc  in  the  United  States  four  great  coal-fields.  Those  of  Pennsyl- 
vania can  yield  50,000,000  tons  per  annum.  In  Maryland  the  seam  which 
supplies  our  steamers  witii  tlie  best  fuel  is  14  feet  thick  and  50  miles  lon.i;. 
The  coal-fields  of  Missouri  alone  have  coal  enou^^li  to  last  the  world  3,000 
years,  while  it  would  take  100,000  years  to  exhaust  those  of  Illinois  at  tlie 
present  rate  of  consumption. 

Masses  of  native  copper,  tons  in  weight,  have  been 
quarried  out  of  the  mines  in  the  Lake  Superior  copper 
region. 

Lead  abounds  in  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Mis- 
souri. In  the  last-named  State  there  is  a  mountain  of 
iron. 

Salt  springs  and  wells  abound  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Mississippi :    in   the   mountains  of  the  west,  gold  and 


silver.     Michigan  now  produces  nearly  as  mueh  salt  as 
New  York. 

The  fisheries  of  the  great  lakes  are  a  profitable  source 
of  industry,  especiall}^  to  Michigan. 

The  white-fish  of  the  lakes,  when  salted  and  packed,  are  highly  estcemcil 
as  an  article  of  food.  The  Mississippi  liver  also  yields  bounteously  of  its 
fresh  fish  to  the  people  along  its  banks. 

Questions. — 1.  Do  any  of  the  Western  States  border  on  a  sea  or  lake? 
2.  What  is  the  course  of  the  Mississippi  ? — Name  some  of  tlie  conclusions  you 
draw  from  a  study  of  its  course.  3.  Why  have  some  of  the  Western  States  a 
different  climate  from  others  ?  4.  Name  and  describe  the  two  great  slopes 
of  Nortli  America. — Do  you  observe  any  depression  or  hollow  on  the  Oro- 
graphic View  which  lead  you  to  conjecture  that  tliere  is  here  a  grand  natural 
cistern  ? 

5.  Is  the  region  occupied  by  the  Western  States  favored  ?  0.  What  is 
the  ratio  of  area  to  Uieir  population  ?  7-  Where  do  the  floods  of  the  Missis- 
sippi come  from? — How  can  you  illustrate  their  magnitude?  8.  What  is 
said  of  the  Prairies? — What  are  the  Plains?  9.  Products  and  industries  of 
the  people  ? — Which  States  grow  the  most  wool  ?  10.  What  is  said  of  tlic 
mineral  resources  of  the  Western  States  ? — Wlicre  does  lead  abound? — Where 
is  there  a  mountain  of  iron  ? — What  is  said  of  Michigan  fisheries  ? 


LESSOJV  XXXIV. 

Western  States — Continued. 

West  Vikginia.  (Map,  p.  45.) 

This  State  was  formed  out  of  the  "  Old  Dominion"  dur- 
ing the  last  war.  It  is  the  most  mountainous  of  the  West- 
ern States,  and  is  classed  with  them,  because  it  adjoins 
them,  is  in  the  same  latitude,  lies  on  the  western 
waters,  and  is  an  interior  State,  as  they  are.  Its  hills 
abound  in  coal  and  iron  :  in  its  valleys  are  to  be  found 
salt-springs,  petroleum-wells,  and  mineral-waters  of 
great  excellence, — among  them  the  celebrated  White 
Sulphur  Si)rings.  No  part  of  the  world  can  surpass 
the  mountains  of  the  two  Virginias  in  the  abundance, 
variety,  and  excellence  of  their  mineral-waters. 


OIL    WEIiL 


Some  of  the  finest  varieties  of  coal  known  to  com- 
merce, such  as  splint  and  cannel  coal,  are  found  in 
the  valley  of  the  Kanawha  river,  on  which  Charleston, 


6o 


KENTUCKY.— OHIO. 


the  former    capital,  is   situated.     It  is  at  the  head  of 


slack-water  navigation. 


down 


There  also  are  the  salt-works.     The  water  is  obtained  by  boriu 
through  the  rocks  below  the  bed  of  the  river.    The 
Kanawha    salt   is    extensively    used   by  the    meat 
packers  of  Cincinnati. 

The  chief  article  of  food  for  sailors  at  sea  is  salt 
beef  and  pork.  Most  of  that  used  by  the  navy  of 
the  United  States  and  in  our  merchant  ships,  and 
much  also  of  that  which  is  used  on  board  the  ships 
and  navies  of  Europe,  is  packed  in  Cincinnati,  and 
cured  witli  the  salt  which  comes  from  Kanawha  and 
from  Pomeroy,  Ohio.  This  salt  has  peculiar  jiroper- 
ties,  which  give  a  special  value  to  the  meats  that 
are  packed  with  it. 

The  hills  which  surround  Wheeling 
also  contain  valuable  deposits  of  bitu- 
minous coal.  This,  with  its  position 
near  the  head  of  navigation  of  the 
Ohio,  and  its  connections  by  railroads 
with  Baltimore  on  one  hand  and  the 
Western  States  on  the  other,  gives 
Wheeling  great  importance. 

It  is  proposed  to  enlarge  the  James  River  Canal   • 
and  make  it  a  great  national  ship-canal,  capable  of 

passing  large  steamers  and  other  vessels  to  and  fro,  between  the  Ohio  and 
Chesapeake,  so  as  to  give,  in  war,  a  water  route  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
and  the  West,  entirely  within  our  own  borders. 

Kentucky.     (Map,  p.  67.) 

This  State  was  a  colony  of  Virginia.  It  was  settled 
chiefly  by  Virginians. 

It  is  separated  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  by  a 
mountain  barrier,  across  which  the  passage  in  those 
early  times,  even  on  horseback,  was  difficult,  and  ren- 
dered perilous  by  the  Indians. 

Kentucky  was  separated  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by 
a  long  and  tedious  river  navigation,  and  to  get  her 
produce  to  markets  then,  she  had  to  ship  it  on  flat- 
boats  and  drift  down  vf'iih  the  current.  Arriving  at 
last  at  New  Orleans,  the  cargo  was  sold,  and  the  boat 
broken  up  for  firewood — for  it  could  not  be  poled  back 
against  the  current ;  and  the  crew  were  left  to  find 
their  way  home  on  foot  through  almost  pathless  forests, 
infested,  too,  frequently  by  hostile  Indians. 

Thus  it  took  one  year  to  grow  a  crop,  another  to  carry  it  to  market  and 
return,  so  that  these  early  settlers  could  produce  for  market  only  one  crop  in 
two  years. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  the  Western  States  about  fifty  years  ago, 
when  steamboat  navigation  first  reached  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the  revo- 
lution that  steam  and  the  steamboat  have  made  upon  the  industrial  pursuits 
of  the  people  of  these  States  is,  with  its  efi'ects,  the  most  remarkable  feature 
in  their  political  geography.  It  has  turned  the  howling  wilderness  into 
smiling  gardens. 

In  many  parts  of  the  State  the  soil  is  of  surpassing 
fertilitv.     Lexington,  in  the  midst  of  the  famous  blue- 


grass  region,  is  on  the  vein  of  limestone  that  forms 
Niagara  Falls,  Mammoth  Cave  of  Ky.,  and  the  Muscle 
Shoals  of  Alabama.     It  makes  Kentuckv  rich  in  cattle. 


M  A  M  M  U  1  1 1 


Hemp  and  tobacco,  with  corn  and  the  cereals,  are  the 
chief  agricultural  staples  of  Kentucky.  It  is  also  a  fine 
fruit  country. 

Iron  mines  are  profitably  worked  in  the  lower  part  of  the  State.  Coal  also 
is  abundant. 

Kentucky  and  Tennessee  are  the  only  States  east  of  Uie  Mississippi  tiiat 
give  their  drainage  entirely  to  that  river,  and  are  wholly  within  its  valley. 

Louisville  is  at  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio,  where  there  is  a 
canal  capacious  enough  to  pass  the  largest  steamers 
that  ply  on  those  waters. 

Ohio. 

The  Ohio  river,  with  its  connections,  placed  this  State 
in  water  communication,  at  an  early  day,  with  all  the 
commercial  marts  of  the  Mississii)pi  Valley.  Iler  geo- 
graphical position  on  the  lakes,  and  the  early  completion 
of  the  Erie  Canal,  gave  her  great  advantages,  which 
were  increased  soon  after  by  the  construction  through 
this  State  of  several  canals  between  the  Ohio  river  and 
the  Lakes.  These  works  at  that  time  contributed  power- 
fully to  the  prosperity  and  i-apid  settlement  of  Ohio. 
At  a  later  day  the  railways  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Maryland  completed  the  connection  with  the  East- 
ern and  Middle  States,  and  made  Ohio  the  great 
thoroughfare  of  trade  and  travel  between  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  and  the  West. 

This  State  was  also  once  a  part  of  the  "  Old  Dominion,"  and  many  of  the 
first  settlers  of  Ohio  were  Virginians. 

There  are  no  mountains  in  this  State  ;  the  country  is 


INDIANA    AND    ILLINOIS. 


6i 


comparatively  level  ;  there  is  no  lack  of  limestone  and 
other  rocks,  and  so  it  was  quite  easy  for  the  early 
settlers,  before  steam  was  introduced  as  a  locomotive 
power,  to  interlace  this  State  with  good  turnpike  roads. 

Ohio  has  already  become  the  third  State  of  the  Union, 
and  her  people  are  more  largely  engaged  in  mining 
and  manufacturing  than  those  of  any  other  Western 
State.     She  has  a  growing  trade  with  the  South. 

There  are  valuable  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  in  the 
region  round  about  Ironton. 

Ohio  is  a  fine  grain  country,  and  the  grape  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  there  for  the  manufacture  of  wine. 
The  Catawba  of  Cincinnati  is  classed  in  Europe  with 
the  favorite  wines  of  the  Rhine. 

Besides  Cincinnati,  which  is  the  largest  city  of  Ohio, 
Cleveland,  Toledo,  Sandusky,  and  Columbus  (the  capital 
of  the  State),  are  important  and  flourishing  cities. 

Pork-packing  is  the  branch  of  industry  for  which  Cincinnati  is  most  noted. 

Indiana  and  Illinois. 

These  States  arc  in  the  Prairie  country  ;  they  have 
no  mountains  ;  their  latitude,  climate,  and  agricultural 
staples  are  the  same. 

Next  to  Ohio,  Illinois  is  the  most  populous  of  the 
Western  States,  and,  like  Ohio,  is  greatly  favored  in  its 
geographical  position, 

Chicago  is  one  of  the  most  flourishinq;  cities  in  the 


OHIO A  «0 . 


West.  It  is  especially  remarkable  for  its  grain  and 
provision  trade.  It  is  the  chief  place  for  the  shipment 
of  grain  and  breadstuffs  from  the  West  to  the  East.  Ex- 
cepting London,  Chicago  is  the  greatest  grain  market  in 
the  world.  Vessels  sometimes  take  in  the  cargo  at  Chi- 
cago, and  sail  thence  direct  for  Europe.  Galena  is  in 
the  midst  of  the  lead-mining  regions.  Cairo  derives 
geographical  importance  from  its  position  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Ohio  with  the  Mississippi,  and  that  impor- 
tance has  been  vastly  increased  by  the  Illinois  Central 
Railway. 

Evansville,  Indiana,  is  a  flourishing  city. 

New  Alban}^  is  a  boat-building  place,  where  many  of 
the  steamers  that  ply  on  the  Mississippi  are  launched. 

A  new  and  magnificent  bridge  now  connects  Louis- 
ville with  New  Albany. 

Questions. — What  kinds  of  coal  are  found  in  the  Kanawha  valley  ? — 
For  what  is  the  Kanawha  salt  especially  valuable  ? — How  is  the  salt  water 
obtained  there  V — What  kind  of  coal  is  found  in  the  hill-sides  at  Wheeling  ? — 
Wliat  waters  is  the  James  River  and  Kanawha  Canal  to  connect? — Why 
is  it  proposed  to  make  it  a  national  work? 

To  what  State  did  the  territory  whicli  now  forms  Kentucky  formerly  be- 
long?— By  whom  was  it  settled? — What  made  the  journey  for  the  early  set- 
tlers there  so  difficult  and  dangerous  ? — How,  before  the  introduction  of  the 
steamboat  on  the  Western  waters,  did  Kentucky  get  her  produce  to  market  ? 
— How  long  did  it  take  them  to  make  and  get  a  crop  to  market? — W^hat  is 
the  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  political  geography  of  the  Western  States? 
— Can  you  give  another  example  of  the  bearings  of  luunan  inventions  upon 
the  geography  of  a  country? — Where  is  the  blue-grass  region  of  Ke'n  lucky? 
— What  great  natural  curiosity  is  found  there  ? — What  are  tiie  chief  agiicul- 
tural  staples  and  mineral  productions  of  Kentucky  ? — What  two  States  east 

of  the  Mississippi  lie  wholly  in  the 
valley  of  that  river? — W^here  is 
Louisville  ? — How  do  steamboats 
pass  the  falls  there  ? 

What  State  was  the  first  to  send 
settlers  to  Ohio  ? — Describe  tlie  face 
of  the  country. — How  came  Ohio  to 
be  a  thoroughfare  between  the 
West  and  the  East  ?— What  advan- 
tage do  the  farmers  of  Ohio  now 
enjoy  on  account  of  her  geographi- 
cal i)osition? — How,  in  the  order  of 
population,  does  Ohio  rank  among 
the  States  of  the  Union? — How, 
among  the  Western  States? — Whicli 
one  among  the  States  of  the  Union 
is  the  first  in  population  ? — First  in 
area?  —  Besides  the  agricultural, 
what  are  the  industries  that  chictiy 
engage  the  attention  of  the  peojile 
of  Ohio  ?  In  what  part  of  the  State 
are  mines  of  coal  and  iron  e.xteu- 
sively  worked  ?— What  celebrated 
wine  comes  from  Ohio  ?— For  what 
business  is  Cincinnati  so  noted  ? 

Wliy  are  the  staple  productions 
in  Illinois  and  Indiana  the  same? 
—In  what  respect  is  Illinois  so 
favored  in  position?— Which  two 
are    the    largest    of    the    Western 


62 


MICHIGAN.— WISCONSIN. 


States  ? — Upon  what  rivers  and  lake  does  the  State  of  Illinois  border  ? — Upon 
what  river  and  lake  does  the  State  of  Indiana  border? — Judging  by  the  eye, 
which  has  the  most  river-front?  (see  Map.) — In  what  branch  of  business  is 
Chicago  especially  noted  ? — Do  vessels  ever  go  from  Chicago  to  Liverpool  ? 
— Where  is  Galena,  and  for  what  is  it  noted  ? — What  increases  the  importance 
of  the  geographical  iwsition  of  Cairo  ? — For  what  branch  of  industiy  is  New 
Albany  noted  ? — Where  is  Evansville  ? 


LESSO-JV   XXXV. 

Western  States — Continued. 
Michigan 

Is  divided  into  two  peninsulas  {see  Map).  It  is  nearly 
surrounded  by  the  great  lakes,  and,  like  Ontario, 
its  climate  is  milder  than  that  of  any  of  the  other 
States  in  the  same  latitude.  Its  shores,  that  look  out 
upon  Lake  Michigan  to  the  west,  are,  on  account  of 
their  softened  climates,  excellent  for  fruit  culture. 

Though  navigation  on  the  great  lakes  is  annually  ob- 
structed by  ice  for  about  live  months,  they  are  frozen 
entirely  over  only  for  a  short  time. 

Fresh  water  can  never  be  colder  than  33°,  because  that  is  its  freezing 
point,  when  it  becomes  ice.  In  winter,  when  it  is  very  cold,  water  at  32° 
feels  comparatively  warm,  as  you  know  by  putting  your  hand  into  the  water 
of  a  boiling  spring.  With  extensive  sheets  of  open  water,  like  those  on 
Lake  Michigan  in  winter,  to  temper  the  biting  west  winds  as  they  approach 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  lake,  you  can  imagine  that  the  winter  temperature 
of  these  shores  is  very  mueli  milder  than  that  of  the  opposite  shores. 


PICTURED     ROCKS     OF    LAKE     SUPKRIOR. 


Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  of  the  great  lakes, 
and  the  highest  above  the  sea-level,  as  is  shown 
by  the  Falls  of  Sault  St.  Marie,  over  which  its  waters 


escape  into  the  lakes  below.  A  ship-canal  has  been 
constructed  around  the  Falls,  so  that  vessels  may 
now  pass  to  and  fro  between  Lake  Superior  and  the 
ocean.  The  Pictured  Rocks  of  Lake  Superior  are 
often  visited. 

Lakes  Michigan,  Huron,  and  Erie  are  on  the  middle  level,  for  the  water 
is  poured  from  them  over  the  Falls  of  Niagara  into  Lake  Ontario,  which  is 
still  considerably  above  the  sea-level.  The  Welland  Canal,  constructed  by 
the  British  Government,  on  the  Canada  side,  passes  around  the  Falls  of  Ni- 
agara, and  opens  a  way  for  navigation,  through  which  the  vessels  that  trade 
between  Chicago  and  Liverpool  find  their  way. 

Lake  Huron  is  the  deepest  of  all  the  lakes. 

The  Lake  Superior  copper-mines  are  in  Michigan. 
They  bring  shipping  to  Ontonagon  and  Eagle  Harbor. 
This  State  is  next  to  Pennsylvania  in  its  manufacture 
of  iron  ;  it  is  rich  in  agriculture,  and  next  to  New 
York  in  the  production  of  salt.  There  are  extensive 
salt-works  in  Saginaw  Valley. 

Michigan  has  but  few  rivers  or  mountains  of  anj 
conse(iuenco. 

Much  of  the  State  is  heavily  timbered,  and  the  timber  trade  is  thcreforo 
very  valuable,  as  there  is  so  much  lake  coast  from  which  it  can  be  easily 
floated  to  market  in  any  direction.  The  steamers  on  the  lakes  consume  im- 
mense quantities  of  wood  that  is  cut  in  tliis  State. 

Moreover,  the  lak(!  frontage  of  Michigan,  you  will  be  surprised  to  find, 
is  more  than  1000  miles  in  length,  and  greater  thau  the  sea-front  of  any 
other  State  in  the  Union,  e.\cept  Florida. 

Wisconsin. 
This  is  the  youngest  of  the  five  States  into  which  the 
magnificent  land-grant  made  by  Virginia  to 
the  United  States,  in  1787,  has  been  erected. 
You  see  by  examining  the  map  tiiat  the  head- 
waters of  the  Wisconsin  river  almost  join  those 
of  the  Fox,  one  of  the  lake  tributaries.  In 
former  days,  and  when  the  country  was  a  wil- 
derness, the  Indian  traders  and  trappers  used 
to  pass  this  w;iy  in  their  canoes  from  the  lakes 
to  the  Mississippi.  They  had  to  carry  their 
canoes  overland  only  a  short  distance.  The 
{)ortage  was  near  the  place  where  now  stands 
the  city  of  Portage. 

Wisconsin  is  level,  or  rolling ;  it  has  no 
mountains,  and  there  is  in  it  but  little  land  unfit 
for  cultivation. 

This  State,  more  than  the  other  four,  abounds 
in  lakes.  Madison,  the  Capital,  is  ))eautifully 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a  nest  of  them. 

Prairie-du-Chien  {-sheen),  on  the  Mississippi, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  prairies. 
The  agricultural  resources  of  AYi.sconsin  are  the  same 


as  those  of  Michigan  and  her  sister  States. 
trade  of  the  State  is  very  large. 


The  timber 


THE    GREAT    LAKES.— MINNESOTA.— MISSOURI    AND    IOWA. 


63 


Wisconsin  has  also  valuable  lead-mines. 

The  west  winds  of  winter  sweep  across  this  State  from  tlie  laud,  and  are 
cokl ;  on  their  passage  across  tlie  hxke  to  tlie  Michigan  shore,  they  are  warm. 
Hence,  though  in  the  same  latitude,  Wisconsin  is  colder  than  Michigan. 

Hie  Great  Lakes. — These  border  chiefly  on  the 
Western  States,  and  separate  them  from  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. 

You  now  understand  (see  the  Orographic  Yiew  of  the 
United  States)  how  the  Falls  and  Rapids  between  Lake 
Superior  and  the  sea,  show  that  the  Lakes  are  situated 
upon  three  terraces,  one  above  the  other,  and  in  such 
a  manner  that,  in  going  from  the  sea  to  Lake  Superior, 
you  ascend  b}'  three  steps.  The  first  lands  you  on  the 
Lake  Ontario  terrace  ;  the  second,  above  the  Falls  of 
Niagara,  where  lie  the  three  middle  Lakes,  and  the 
third,  above  Sault  St.  Marie,  on  Lake  Superior,  at 
least  600  feet  above  the  sea-level.  On  a  plateau  1,000 
feet  above  this  terrace,  both  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Red  River  of  the  North  take  their  rise.     1.600  feet 


MIJliM    O.N     LAKE    tll'EHIOr^. 


therefore  is  the  total  descent  which  the  waters  from  this 
plateau,  and  600  feet  the  descent  which  the  waters  from 
tlii.s  terrace,  have  to  make  before  they  get  to  the  sea. 

Now,  by  observing  the  falls  of  the  rivers,  as  they  come  from  their  sources 
<m  their  way  to  the  sea,  you  may  trace  the  shapes  of  the  terraces  into  which 
nature  has  arranged  our  country.  The  Wetland  Canal  passes  on  the  Canada 
side,  around  the  Falls  of  Niagara. 

The  Sault  St.  Marie  (soo  sent  ma'ry)  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Supe- 


rior, and  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  on  the  Mississippi,  12  miles  above  St.  Paul, 
in  Minnesota,  indicate  the  limits  in  these  portions  of  the  Lake  Superior  terrace. 

The  commerce  on  the  Lakes  is  very  great ;  it  is  chiefly  domestic,  but  it 
greatly  exceeds  in  value  the  whole  foreign  trade  of  the  country.  With  canal- 
boats,  lake-steamers,  and  sailing-craft,  the  Great  Lakes,  during  the  navigable 
season  of  seven  months,  give  employment  annually  to  not  less  than  five 
thousand  vessels. 

The  storms  on  the  Lakes  are  as  furious  as  those  at  sea,  and  the  waves 
that  they  raise  are  as  violent.  The  Storm-warnings,  now  issued  by  the  Gov- 
ernment Signal-Service  and  Weather-Bureau,  from  Washington,  are  greatly 
needed  on  these  stormy  waters  ;  and  in  several  instances  already,  the  timely 
telegram,  announcing  the  tempest's  approach,  has  been  the  means  of  staying 
the  departure  of  ships  and  steamers  from  port,  and  of  saving  many  lives 
and  property  of  immense  value. 

Minnesota. 

Minnesota  has  hills,  but  no  mountains.  Its  soil  is  a 
rich  and  black  loam,  that  is  very  fine  for  wheat  and 
grass. 

"The  Father  of  Waters"  takes  his  rise  from  Lake 
Itasca  in  this  State.  It  abounds  in  lakes,  many  of  which 
are  beautiful,  though  none  of  them  are  large.  The 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony  and  of  Minnehaha  are  noted  for 
their  beautiful  scenery. 

Minnesota  lies  partly  on  the  northern 
slope  of  the  great  "Divide, "and  its  sum- 
mit is  crowned  with  lakes  of  clear  wa- 
ter. Its  summer  climates  are  delightful, 
especially  to  persons  with  pulmonary 
diseases  ;  but  its  winter  climates  are 
very  severe  ;  they  are  colder  than  the 
winters  of  Wisconsin,  because  the 
country  is  higher,  farther  north,  and 
more  exposed.  None  but  the  hardiest 
plants  can  withstand  them. 

Pembina  {pem'bl-na)  is  a  frontier  town  where  the 
half-breeds  and  others  from  the  Red  River  settlements 
of  the  North  coino  every  summer  to  trade  their  furs, 
peltries,  buffalo-robes,  tongues,  and  pemican.  These 
lieople  also  go  down  to  St.  Paul  annually  in  large 
caravans  with  the  spoils  they  have  won  from  the 
chase. 

The  forests  of  this  State  abound  in  fine  timber. 
Vast  quantities  of  it  are  cut  and  floated  down  to  the 
river  markets  below  in  huge  rafts,  on  which  the 
raftsmen  build  their  shanties  and  live.  The  timber- 
trade  is  an  important  branch  of  business  all  along  the 
Upper  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  ;  much  lumber  is 
produced  by  the  mills  at  St.  Anthony,  which  are 
driven  by  the  fine  water-power  there. 

The  limits  of  Minnesota  extend  as  far  north  as  the 
parallel  of  49°,  and  farther  than  those  of  any  State 
east  of  the  Mississippi. 

MiSSOTTKI   ANP   loWA. 

The  climates,  soil,  and  productions  of  Missouri  and 


64 


KANSAS    AND    NEBRASKA. 


Iowa  correspond  to  the  soil,  climates,  and  productions  of 
Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Illinois,  which  are  between  the 
same  parallels  but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  which  have  already  been  described. 

In  Missouri,  tobacco  cultivation  receives  attention,  as 
it  does  in  Kentucky,  and  the  vineyards  occupy  laborers, 
as  they  do  in  Ohio.  The  wines  of  Missouri  are  excel- 
lent. This  State  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase, 
and  among  her  other  sources  of  wealth  she  boasts  of  a 
mountain  of  iron. 

St.  Louis  was  settled  by  the  French.  Geographically, 
this  city  is  the  commercial  centre  of  the  Mississippi 
Yalley.  It  is  an  entrepot  of  great  importance  between 
the  East  and  the  West,  and  has  an  extensive  inland 
commerce. 

Midway  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  St.  Louis  is  on  the  way- 
side of  the  great  inland  routes  for  trade  and  travel.  Tlie  Western  States 
alone  have  35,000  miles  of  railway  connection. 

Situated  near  the  meeting  of  the  two  great  rivers  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, and  with  a  back  country  embiaciug  thousands  of  miles  of  the  most 
fertile  lands,  and  containing  in  its  hills  veins  and  deposits  of  gold  and  silver 
of  fabulous  richness,  she  is  in  the  focus  of  a  vast  and  expanding  trade. 
No  city  in  the  world  has  a  more  dazzling  future  th>.n  St.  Louis. 

The  Railroad  to  the  Pacific  has  placed  St.  Louis  in  commercial  connection 
with  the  marts  of  that  ocean,  and  the  early  compleiion  of  the  railway-bridge 
now  in  process  of  construction  across  the  Mississippi,  will  make  the  connec- 
tions of  that  city,  bj'  rail,  complete  from  East  to  West,  as  they  already  are, 
by  water,  from  North  to  South. 


Iowa  is  a  level  State.  It  has  no  mountains,  but 
hills  enough  to  divide  it  into  watersheds,  and  with 
inclination  sufficient  to  give  the  country  wholesome 
drainage  and  abundant  water-power.  Its  lands  are 
fertile,  yielding  bountiful  harvests  of  wheat  and  corn. 

Dubuque,  on  the  Mississippi,  is  the  centre  of  a  grow- 
ing business. 


In  some  parts  of  this  and  other  Western  States,  coal  is  often  so  dear  and 
fire-wood  so  scarce  that  the  people  use  corn  as  fuel.  The  great  expense  of 
sending  their  grain  to  market  makes  it  cheap. 

So  great  is  the  expense  of  getting  the  raw  produce  of  Uie  West  to  the  At- 
lantic seaboard,  that  the  engineer  officers  of  the  army  who  have  been  sent 
out  there,  report  that,  by  present  routes,  corn  grown  100  miles  west  of  Chicago 
cann(  t  pay  the  expenses  of  carrying  it  to  New  York. 

The  study  of  geography,  as  it  bears  upon  questions  of 
political  economy,  is  highly  instructive  and  profitable, 
and  facts  like  these  are  important.  So  also  are  the 
routes  of  commerce,  because  these  touch  the  prosperity 
of  all  of  the  States  in  an  eminent  degree. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska.    (Map,  p.  73.) 

The  surface  of  these  States  consists  of  barren  wastes, 
lolling  prairies,  and  grassy  plains,  with  borders  and 
clumps  of  timber  along  the  streams  and  in  the  bottom- 
lands. 

Bears,  deer,  wolves,  and  buffalo  abound  in  many 
parts. 

A  very  small  portion  of  the  country  has  been  reduced 
to  cultivation  as  yet,  but  the  soil  and  climates  are 
suitable  to  the  great  staples  of  the  States  in  correspond- 
ing latitudes  east  of  the  Mississippi  river.  These  States 
are  also  without  mountains. 

The  best  lands  in  Ne- 
braska are  in  the  eastern 
half,  which  is  the  most 
thickly  settled.  The  wx'st- 
ern  half  is  more  suitable  for 
pastoral  life. 

Omaha  is  a  flourishing 
and  growing  city. 

The  Platte,  like  all  the 
western  tributaries  of  the 
Missouri,  during  summer 
and  autumn,  w'lien  droughts 
|)revail,  often  presents  the 
singular  spectacle  of  a  river 
in  flow  near  its  sources 
and  its  mouth,  but  without 
any  continuous  stream  in 
the  intervening  portion  of  its  bed. 

Its  head-waters  are  fed  by  the  snows,  and  lower  down  in  the  valley  the 
rains,  the  rivers,  and  lateral  tributaries  are  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  current ; 
but  as  it  crosses  the  "  mild  winter  belt"  the  water  is  cither  absorbed  by  the 
earth  or  sucked  up  by  the  sun,  and  at  this  season  in  this  part  of  the  country 
many  "  drj'  creeks"  are  found,  which  at  other  seasons  of  the  year  are  dashing 
rivers. 

The  soil  in  the  valley  of  this  river  is  fertile,  and  is 
very  productive  when  there  is  water. 


DAKOTA    TERRITORYo— COLORADO,    WYOMING,    AND    MONTANA    TERRITORIES. 


65 


The  climate  of  Kan- 
sas is  mild,  and  the 
winters  are  not  of  long 
duration,  nor  of  great 
severity. 

The  staple  is  Indian 
corn.  Gypsum  and  coal 
abound  in  the  State. 

The  eastern  part  of 
the  State  has  been  rap- 
idly settled  ;  the  west- 
ern part  still  contains 
some  Indians. 

Leavenworth  is  the 
metropolis  of  the  State. 

Dakota  Territoky. 

This  territor}^  though  it  lies  between  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude  with  Minnesota,  differs  greatly 
from  it  in  climate  ;  it  is  not  as  well  watered,  its 
rain-Fall  is  not  as  great,  neither  is  it  as  abundantly 
supplied  with  lakes  ;  it  is  a  much  drier  country  than 
Minnesota. 

The  buffalo  still  swarms  over  its  plains  at  certain 
seasons,  and  hunting  and  trapping  is  an  important 
branch  of  industry  among  the  hardy  settlers  of  this 
territory,  who  furnish  us  with  bear-skins,  buffalo-robes, 
hams,  and  tongues. 

Colorado,  with  Wyoming  and  Montana  Territories. 

This  region,  one  State  and  two  Territories,  though 
lying  chiefly  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, nevertiieless  occupies  on  both  sides  portions  of 
the  great  watershed  whicli  separates  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  from  those  of  the  Pacific  ;  for  you  observe 
that  both  the  Colorado  and  Coluuiljia  rivers  have  their 
head-waters,  the  former  iu  Colorado,  the  latter  in  Mon- 
tana. These  two  rivers  eventually  find  their  way 
through  tlie  water-gaps  in  the  mountains  to  the  Pacific. 
(See  the  Orographic  View  of  the  United  States.) 

The  crest  of  this  dividing  ridge  is  from  5,000  to  G.OOO  feet  above  the  sea- 
level,  though  some  of  it.s  peaks  have  more  than  twice  that  altitude.  These 
high  peaks  are  always  covered  with  snow,  and  it  is  the  melting  of  tlie  snows 
of  these  mountains  in  warm  weather  which  feeds  the  rivers  on  the  eastern 
slopes  and  prevents  them  from  running  dry  in  summer. 

The  heiid  of  navigation  of  the  Missouri — 3,000  miles 
above  St.  Loui.s — ^is  at  Fort  Benton,  in  Montana.  Large 
numbers  of  steamers  go  up  there  every  season,  bringing 
gold  from  the  mines  of  the  settlers. 


M  1  -  >  o  i  1!  I    i;  1  V  1. 1. 


In  the  centre  of  Montana  are  the  great  falls  of  the 
Missouri  river,  among  the  most  picturesque  in  America. 

The  lovers  of  the  chase  frequently  come  over  from  Europe,  and  taking  an 
Indian  for  their  guide,  spend  the  summer  iu  the  western  prah-ies,  hunting 
Ijulfalo  and  other  large  game. 

In  the  highest  ])arts  of  this  very  mountainous  region, 
the  snow  lies  on  the  ground  all  the  year.  The  pre- 
cious metals  abound,  and  the  mines  of  silver  and  gold 
are  worked  with  great  profit. 

Tliere  is  a  peculiar  climate  along  this  part  of  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  may  be  called  The  Mild  Winter  Belt;  for  when  the 
plains  of  Minnesota,  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  and  Missouri,  are  covered  with 
scow  so  as  to  deprive  the  wild  cattle  of  subsistence,  the  buffalo  finds  abun- 
dant pastures  in  this  mild  belt,  where  it  passes  the  greater  part  of  the  winter. 
Thus  you  see  that,  although  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  States  east,  and  higher 
above  the  sea-level,  yet  here,  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  you  have  winters 
so  mild  that  the  lizards  and  reptiles  of  Texas  are  found  here;  and  the  win- 
ters at  Fort  Laramie,  on  the  heaf-waters  of  tlie  Platte,  in  Wyoming,  are  so 
much  milder  than  they  are  at  St  Louis,  that  the  river,  at  the  fort,  does  not 
generally  freeze  until  long  after  thv,  navigation  has  been  closed  at  that  city. 

Fort  Laramie  is  not  only  higher  than  St.  Louis  above  the  sea-level,  but  it 
is  further  north  :  for  both  of  these  reasons  the  winters  at  the  fort  ought  to  be 
the  eoldei';  but  the  winter  rains  make  them  milder. 

It  is  well  for  the  geographical  student  to  be  ac- 
([uainted  with  these  facts  ;  but  he  should  not  be  content 
with  that  ;  he  should  strive  to  understand  their  cause. 

AVinter  is  the  season  of  the  heavy  rain-fall  on  the  Pacific  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  then  that  their  summit  is  snowed  up  to  the  depth  of 
m:niy  feet;  and  it  is  a  law  of  nature  that  when  vapor  enough  is  condensed  to 
make'a  gallon  of  snow-water,  heat  enough  is  liberated  and  set  free  in  the  sur- 
rounding air  to  boil  nearly  six  gallons  of  water.  It  is  the  heat  from  this 
source  that  tempers  the  winter  climates  all  along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  plains  many  miles  to  the  eastward. 

With  this  explanation  you  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of 
this  fact  touching  the  climates  of  the  trans-Mississippi 


66 


COLORADO,  WYOMING,  AND    MONTANA    TERRITORIES. 


country — viz.,  that  as  j^ou  go  west,  the  winter  climate 
grows  milder,  till  you  reach  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Of  all  the  States  and  Territories,  Wyoming  is  the 
only  one  where  women  are  allowed  to  serve  on  juries. 

The  soil  about  Cheyenne  is  very  rich,  and,  when  irri- 
gation can  be  had,  never  fails  to  produce  abundantly. 
Coal  has  been  found  in  this  neighborhood. 

In  the  same  vicinity,  also,  is  tlie  picturesque  and  unique  scenery  called 
the  "  Garden  of  tlie  Gods,"  through  which  a  beautiful  stream  is  consUmtly 
flowing,  and  into  which  you  enter  through  a  natural  gateway  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock. 

In  the  territory  of  Dakota  there  is  a  district  covered  by  large  masses  of 
indurated  clay  and  marls,  which  have  been  worn  by  the  weather  into  archi- 
tectural forms  and  fantastic  shapes.  In  this  district  are  the  "  Bad  Lauds"  of 
Dakota. 

Colorado  is  famous  for  the  deep  and  enormous  Canons  (kan-yons')  or 
gorges,  which  maik  the  line  of  the  Colorado  river. 


Colorado  embraces  within  its  bordere  a  remarkable  system  of  mountain 
peaks,  and  the  head-springs  of  four  large  rivers,  namely,— the  Colorado,  flow- 
ing west  into  the  Pacific ;  the  South  Platte,  flowing  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  join  the  Missouri ;  the  Rio  Grande  ;  vnd  the  Arkansas. 

Quesfions.—Uow,  geographically,  is  Michigan  State  divided  ?— Why  is 
its  climate  no  mildV— V/hat  is  the  freezing-point  of  fresh  water?— How  long 
is  navigation  suspended  on  the  lakes  annually  ?— What  tempers  the  cold  wes"t 
winds  of  winter  as  they  approach  the  eastern  peninsula  of  Michigan?— 
Which  is  the  largest  of  the  great  lakes  ?— Why  do  you  suppose  it  to  beliigher 
than  the  rest  above  the  sea-level  ?— How  do  vessels  get  from  it  to  the  lower 
lakes,  and  back?— How  many  steps  or  levels  do  the  Lakes  occupy  ?— "Which 
lakes  are  on  the  middle  level  ?— What  canal  passes  around  the  Falls  of  Niag- 
ara?—On  which  side  of  the  river  is  the  Welland  Canal?— Suppose  you  knew 
the  fall  of  each  river  or  strait  between  Lake  Superior  and  the  sea,  could  you 
tell  the  height  of  each  lake  above  the  sea-level  ?— Which  is  the  deepest  lake  ? 
—Where  are  the  Lake  Superior  copp?i'-mines  ?— To  what  lake  towns  do  they 
give  importance?- In  what  branches  of  industry  does  Michigan  vie  with 
New   York  and  Pennsylvania?— Where  are  her  salt-works ?— Describe  the 


face  of  the  country  in  this  State.— How  does  Michigan  compare,  as  to  the 
length  of  her  shore-line  on  the  lakes,  with  the  Atlantic  States  ? 

What,  on  the  map,  are  the  most  striking  geographical  features  of  Wiscon- 
sin and  Michigan  ?— Between  what  rivers,  which  empty  their  waters  into  the 
Mississippi,  and  others  which  empty  into  the  lakes,  is  there  a  short  portage? 
—Describe  the  face  of  the  country  in  Wisconsin.— Whicli  State  can  boast  of 
the  greatest  number  of  lakes  ?— In  what  iuiportant  branchiis  of  industry,  be- 
sides agriculture,  are  the  people  of  Wisconsin  engaged  ?— Why  is  the  timber 
trade  so  important  in  prairie  countries? 

Upon  how  many  terraces  do  the  great  lakes  lie  ?— How  high  is  the  Lake 
Superior  terrace  above  the  sea-level  ?— How  can  you  find  out  the  edges  of 
this  terrace  ?— How,  as  to  magnitude  and  importance,  does  the  commerce  of 
the  lakes  compare  with  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country  ?— What  is  the  total 
navigable  length  of  tlie  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  ?— How  many  ves.sels, 
including  canal-boats,  are  annually  engaged  with  lake  commerce  ?— Are  the 
lakes  vexed  with  storms  as  the  sea  is  ?— Describe  the  face  of  the  country  in 
Minnesota. — What  are  its  chief  agricultural  productions  ? 

What  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  do  ilissouri  and  Iowa  resemble?  (See 
page  63.)— What  agricultural  staples,  besides  wheat  aiul  corn,  aie  cultivated  in 
Missouri? — What    famous   mountain   is    in  this  Slate?— By  wdiom  was  St. 

Louis  settled  ?  —  What  geographical 

circumstances  make  the  .site  of  this 
city  so  important? — Describe  the  ad- 
vantages of  its  situation. — How  many 
miles  of  railway  have  the  Western 
States  ? 

Is  Iowa  a  mountainous  State? — 
Describe  tlie  face  of  the  country. — Its 
(;()mmercial  relations. 

What  great  river  rises  in  Minne- 
sota?— In  what  lake? — AV here  is  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi  ? 
— Ujjon  what  two  great  watersheds 
does  tlie  State  of  Minnesota  lie? — De- 
scribe its  climates. — Can  you  explain 
why  the  winteis  here  are  so  much 
colder  than  they  are  in  Wisconsin  ? — 
How  far  north  does3Iinnesota  extend? 
— What  trade  is  actively  carried  on  in 
Pembina? — Witii  whom? — To  what 
l)ninch  of  business  do  the  forests  of 
lliis  State  give  rise?— WHiat  famous 
falls  are  at  St.  Anthony?— Its  water- 
routes  to  the  markets  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  ? — What  are  its  slajile  pro- 
ductions? 

Describe  the  face  of  the  country  in 
Kansas  and  Neljraska. — What  wild 
animals  are  found  there  ? — With  the 
climates  of  what  States  would  you  C(miparc  the  climates  of  these?  (Refer 
to   the  Orographic  View  of  Ilie  United  Slates.) 

Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  does  Dakota  lie?— How  does  its  climate 
compare  with  that  of  Minnesota?- Describe  its  natural  aspects.— What 
still  constitutes  an  imi)ortant  branch  of  industry  U)  the  settlers  of  this  Terri- 
toiy? 

Do  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana  lie  wholly  within  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi  ? 

How  high  above  the  sea-level  is  the  crest  of  the  great  watershed  between 
the   two   oceans?— How    high   the  loftiest    peaks?— To  what  point  is  the    j 
Missouri  river  navigable  ?— How   far  is   Fort   Benton    above   St.   Louis?—    I 
How  long  on  tht;  Rocky  Mountains  does  the  snow  lie? 

In  what  other  miuerals  besides  the  precious  metals  does  this  sec- 
tion abound  ? — What  is  a  peculiarity  «)f  its  winter  climates  ? — How  far 
does  the  mild-winter  belt  extend?— What  proof  can  you  give  of  the  mild- 
ness of  the  winters  in  this  belt  '—Can  you  explain  why  the  climate  is 
milder  here  than  it  is  several  hundred  miles  to  the  eastward,  and  in  the 
same  latitude  ?— At  what  season  of  the  year  does  tlie  great  snow-fall  lake  ^ 
place  in  the  Rocky  Mountains ?— What  is  said  of  the  soil  about  Cheyenne? 


j::::- 


wiii'isMr  wiMi. 


{For  West  Virgi:n<u  xee  p.  45  ;  /or  Kansas,  Nfbraska^  and  Western  TerrHort$9t 
nee  p.  73.) 

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68 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    THE    WESTERN    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


LESSOR    XXXVI, 

Studies   on   the   Maps   of  the   Western   States   and 
Territories.    (Pp.  67,  73.) 

Extent  and  Boundaries.— Name  the  Western  States  ana  Terri- 
tories (p.  58). — Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  do  they  lie?  (i\Iap,  pp.  33, 
33). — How  are  they  bounded,  as  a  whole,  on  the  north? — On  the  south? — 
Between  what  meridians  of  longitude  do  Ihey  lie  ? — How  do  you  bound  them 
on  the  east  ? — Hovi',  on  the  west  ? 

What  Western  States  border  on  Lake  Erie  ? — Wliat,  on  Lake  Huron  ? — 
What,  on  Lake  Superior  ? — What,  on  British  America  ? — On  the  Ohio  river  ? 
— On  the  Mississippi  river  ? 

Bound  each  of  these  States  and  Territories  separately. 

Judging  by  the  eye  and  the  map-scale,  which  is  tlie  largest  of  all  the  Western 
States? — Which  is  the  smallest? — Which  has  the  most  Lake  coast? — Which 
has  the  greatest  extent  of  border  ou  the  great  rivers  ? 

Rivers, — Trace  the  three  great  rivers  of  the  Western  States :  the  Mis- 
sissippi;  the  Missouri ;  the  Ohio. 

Across  what,  and  between  what  States  and  Territories  does  the  Missouri 
flow? 

What  river  flows  between  Indiana  and  Illinois  ? — What  two  rivers 
from  Tennessee  traverse  Kentucky  ? — How  far  above  its  mouth  do  they  empty 
into  the  Ohio? — How  near  do  they  approach  each  other? — Which  empties 
into  tlie  Ohio  farthest  up  ?— Where  is  the  Muskingiun  river? — Wliere 
does  the  Cumberland  rise? — Describe  the  Lickuig,  the  Kentucky,  and 
Green  rivers. — Name  the  rivers  of  Ohio. — Describe  their  course,  and  tell 
where  tliey  empty. — What  rivers  empty  into  the  Mississippi  from  the  Western 
States?— Does  the  Minnesota  river  empty  above  or  below  St.  Paul? — Are 
most  of  the  rivers  of  Minnesota  di'ained  into  the  Missouri  or  Mississippi  ? — 
Is  New  Madrid  above  or  below  the  mouth  of  the  Oliio  ? — Does  the  Missouri 
empty  into  the  Mississippi  above  or  below  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio? — Where 
does  the  Kansas  river  empty  ? — Is  this  above  or  below  Jelfei-son  Citj-  ?    -    ~     ' 

Where  is  the  Red  river  of  the  North? — Its  source? — Its  course  and  ter- 
minus ? — Where  are  the  head-waters  of  the  Missouri  ? — Which  way  do  they 
flow  from  their  source  for  a  considerable  distance? — Where  does  the  Des 
Moines  river  rise  ? — Where  does  it  empty  ? — Trace  the  Kansas  river. — What 
rivers,  which  find  their  way  into  the  Pacific,  flow  from  Colorado,  Wyo- 
ming, and  Montana  ? 

Where  does  the  Platte  river  rise? — Its  course? — Its  mouth? — Through 
what  States  do  the  Kansas  and  Platte  rivers  ruu?— Wliere  is  Smoky  Hill 
Fork  ?    (See  Kansas,  p.  78.) 

Lakes. — Describe  the  lake-basin  of  the  Western  States. — What  rivers  con- 
nect Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie  ? — What  lake  lies  between  them  ?— What 
is  the  river  that  flows  into  it? — How  are  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan  con- 
nected?— Lakes  Huron  and  Superior?— Erie  and  Ontario? — Ontario  and  the 
sea? — How  long,  judging  by  the  eye  and  tlie  map-scale,  is  Lake  Michigan? — 
How  wide  ? — How  broad  is  Lake  Superior  ? — Do  most  of  the  rivers  of  Min- 
nesota rise  in  lakes? — Which  is  farthest  to  the  north,  Lake  Traverse  or  Lake 
Itasca  ? — Where  is  Lake  Pepin  ? 

Bays  and  Straits.— Y^het^  is  Green  Bay?— Saginaw  Bay?— Kee- 
weenaw  Bay? — Georgia  Bay?— Where  is  the  Strait  of  Mackinaw? 

Routes  and  instances. — What  is  the  course  and  distance  from 
Wheeling  to  Baltimore  ? — From  Wheeling  to  Parkersburg  ? — To  Charleston  ? 
— How  far  is  it  from  Charleston  to  Point  Pleasant  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Great  Kanawha  river?  Map,  p.  45. 


How  fixr  is  it,  going  by  steamer,  from  Charleston  to  Cincinnati? — ^To 
Louisville  ?— To  St.  Louis  ?— To  New  Orleans  ?  —Find  Lexington,  Ky. — How 
far  is  it  from  Louisville? — From  Cincinnati? — How  far  is  Louisville  from 
Nashville  ? — From  Memphis  ? — Is  Louisville  above  or  below  Cincinnati,  on  ' 
the  Ohio  ? — How  far  is  it  from  Louisville  to  Chicago  ? — To  St.  Louis  ? — How 
would  you  go  from  Chicago  to  Indianapolis  ? — From  St  Louis  to  Indianapolis  V 
—How  would  you  go  from  Cleveland  to  Dayton? — From  Cleveland  to 
Chicago  ? — To  St.  Louis  ? — To  St.  Paul  ?— How  far  from  Cincinnati  to  Lake 
Erie  ? — How  would  you  go  ? — How  would  you  go  fi'om  Springfield  to  Terra 
Haute? 

How  would  you  go  from  Fort  Wayne  to  Terre  Haute? — From  Fort 
Wayne  to  Milwaukee? — How  far  is  Dubuque  from  Pembina? — Hew  far 
is  Pembina  from  Omaha  City  ? — From  St.  Louis  ? — How  would  you  go  from 
Des  Moines  to  Chicago  ? — Where  is  Burlington  ? — How  far  above  St.  Louis  ? 
— How  far  is  St.  Louis  from  New  York? — From  New  Orleans? — From 
Chicago? — From  San  Francisco ?— How  could  you  go  from  Omaha  to 
Topeka? 

Mountains. — What  part  of  West  Virginia  is  most  mountainous?— 
What  mountains  are  there  in  Kentucky  ? — Which  part  of  this  State  is  most 
mountainous? — Describe  the  mountains  of  the  Western  States  generally. — 
Where  is  Pike's  Peak? — Where  is  Lang's  Peak? — Where  is  Iron  Mountain? 
— Are  there  any  mountains  in  Dakota? 

Watersheds. — Describe  the  watersheds  of  the  Western  States  and  Terri- 
tories generally. — State,  in  order,  how  each  one  of  these  States  and  Tenitoi-ics 
is  drained. 

Note. — The  scholar  will  do  well  to  examine  the  Orographic  View  of  tlio 
United  States,  at  this  point. 

Mines. — Wliere  are  the  lead  mines  of  Missouri  ? — The  iron  mines  ? — 
The  lead-mines  of  Illinois? 

Chief  Towns. —  Point  out  Wlieeling. — Charleston. — Point  Pleasant. — 
Parkersburg. — Louisville. — Frankfort. — Covington.  —  Henderson. —  Newport 
Faducah. — Danville. 

Cincinnati.  —  Columbus.  —  Dayton.  —  Where  is  Cleveland? — Where  is 
Toledo  ?  —  Chillicothe  ?  —  Marietta  ?  —  Steubenville  ?  —  Where  is  Peoria  ?— 
Sandusky? — Springfield? — Where  is  New  Albany? — Cairo? — Terre  Haute? 
— Where  is  Fort  Wayne? — Where  is  Detroit? — Lansing?— How  far  is 
Detroit  from  Chicago  ?— From  Buffalo  ?— Where  is  Sault  St  Marie  ?— Where  is 
Dubuque  ? — Where  is  Des  Moines  ? — Where  is  St  Louis  ? — Is  it  above  or  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Missouri? — Where  is  JeScrson  City? — Kansas  City? — To- 
peka?— Lecompton?— Omaha?— Where  is  Pembina ?— Where  is  Duluth? — 
What  towns  in  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana,  are  at  the  junction  of 
rivers? — Where  is  Cheyenne  City? — Where  is  Gallatin? — Virginia  City  in 
Montana?— Yankton  ? — Lincoln?— Leavenworth  ?— Denver ?— Does  the  Platte 
river  empty  above  the  city  of  Omalia  or  below  it? 

Miscellaneous. — Where  are  the  salt-works  oi  Kanawha  river.  West 
Virginia?— Where  are  the  White  Sulphur  Springs?— What  is  the  only  river, 
rising  in  West  Virginia  and  emptying  into  tlie  Atlantic  Ocean? — Upon  what 
long  vem  of  rocks  are  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  the  Greenbrier  country  situated? 
— Where  is  Fond  du  Lac  V— Isle  Itoyale  ?— Where  are  the  Pictured  Rocks  of 
Lake  Superior?  Ans.  In  the  northern  part  of  Michigan,  on  the  Lake. — 
Where  is  Fort  Snelling  ?— How  would  you  go  from  Chicago  to  Liverpool  all 
the  way  by  ship  ? 

Note.— The  Government  of  the  United  States  has  organized  a  Storm 
Bureau,  for  tlie  pui-pose  of  rendering  the  navigation  of  the  Seacoast  and 
Lakes  much  safer  by  applying  science  to  the  prediction  of  storms,  and  estab- 
lishing a  system  of  signals  for  warning  vessels  of  their  approach  and  force. 


THE    PACIFIC    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


69 


LESSOJV   XXXVII. 

The   Pacific   States  and  Territories. 
Total  Population,  835,059. 


State. 


California 

Oregon   

Nevada 

Arizona  Territory. 
Utah  "      "  . 

Idaho 

Washington  " 
Alaska  " 


Capitals. 


Sacramento. . . 

Salem 

Carson 

Tucson 

Salt  Lake  City 
Boise  City. . . . 
Olympia 


Chief  Cities  and  their 

Population. 

San  Francisco  . . 

149,473 

Portland 

8,293 

Virginia  City.. . 

7,048 

Tucson 

3,224 

Salt  Lake  City.. 

12,854 

Boise  City 

995 

Olympia 

1,003 

Sitka 

2,000 

1.  Coast-Ijine  and  Orofjrapliij. — We  come  now  to 
the  Pacific  slopes  of  our  country,  and  the  first  thing  that 
a  geographer  does  when  he  reaches  a  new  country  is 
to  study  its  maps  and  its  orography,  to  learn  how  the 
land  lies. 

The  map  of  the  United  States  tells  you  tliat  the  coast- 
line of  the  Pacific,  along  our  southern  borders,  is  not 
curtained  with  islands,  as  is  our  Atlantic  coast  in  the 
same  latitudes  ;  nor  is  it  indented  with  deep  bays  and 
harbors,  as  the  coast  of  Xew  England  is. 

Parallel  with  the  coast  there  is  a  range  of  mountains, 
as  on  the  Atlantic  side.  On  the  Atlantic,  this  coast- 
range  is  separated  from  tiie  sea  by  a  belt  of  lowlands, 
varying  in  breadth  from  50  to  250  miles  ;  ^vhile  on  the 
Pacific  side  the  hill-country  comes  down  to  the'sea,  and 
the  coast  is  bluff  and  steep.  Consequently  the  tide- 
water country  along  our  Pacific  shores  is  confined  to  a 
very  narrow  belt. 

The  San  Joaquin  [mJin  wah-ken)  river  runs  between 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  Range. 


IAN     JOAQUIN     It  I  V  K  11 


2.  The  Pacific  Table-Land. — Between  the  Nevada 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains  there  is  an  immense  table- 
land or  valley,  situated  several  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  varying  in  breadth  from  300  to  700  or  800 
miles.  This  table-land  extends  all  the  way  from  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  through  British  America  and 
Alaska  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  city  of  Mexico,  at  the  height  of  7,500  feet  above  the  sea,  stands  upon 
it,  and  from  north  to  south  its  total  length  is  scarcely  less  than  4,000  miles. 

In  the  widest  part  of  this  table-land  is  the  great 
inland  basin  of  our  continent,  which  is  chiefly  occupied 
by  parts  of  Utah  and  Mexico. 

You  recognize  (see  Orographic  View  of  the  United  States)  the  various 
parts  of  this  inland  basin  by  the  lakes  here  and  there  which  have  no  outlet ; 
such  lakes  are  sometimes  salt,  sometimes  brackish,  seldom  fresh. 

3.  Jlinerals. — The  hills  and  mountains  that  rise  up 
from  this  plateau  are  stored  with  rich  mineral  deposits. 
Silver,  gold,  copper,  and  quicksilver,  with  mines 
of  iron,  surpassing  in  quantity  and  quality  even  the 
celebrated  iron  mountain  of  Missouri,  have  been  found 
in  this  region.  Veins  of  tin,  zinc,  lead,  and  other 
metals,  and  beds  of  salt  and  soda  of  unknown  extent, 
are  also  found. 

The  chief  industry  of  all  this  region  of  country  at 
present,  js  mining  ;  but  the  agricultural  resources  are 
immense,  especially  in  California  and  Oregon. 

4.  Cliniates. — Latitude  for  latitude,  the  climates  of 
our  country  along  its  Atlantic  slopes  afford  no  clue  to 
the  climates  of  the  Pacific  slopes. 

In  the  former  case  the  winds  are  from  the  land,  and 
in  winter  are  cold  ;  in  the  latter  case  they  come  from 
the  sea,  and  are  warm  and  moist.  This  difterence  of 
climate  depends  simply  upon  the  way  the  winds  hlow.  It 
is  so  marked,  that  the  seasons  in  California,  instead  of 
being  divided  into  summer  and  winter,  are  often  al- 
luded to  as  the  rainy  and  the  dry  seasons.  This  is 
.  the  case  all  along  the  Pacific  slopes,  from  California 
to  Chili,  except  in  Peru,  where  it  does  not  rain  at  all. 

For  weeks  together  in  summer  not  a  drop  of  rain  falls  in  California ; 
lier  winter  is  the  rainy  season ;  but,  as  you  proceed  north,  the  westerly 
winds  become  more  dominant,  and  the  rains  more  copious,  so  that  from 
Oregon,  all  the  way  up  to  the  north,  the  American  slopes  of  the  Pacific 
are  well  watered,— whereas  from  Oregon  all  the  way  to  Valparaiso  in 
Chili,  there  is  lack  of  water  and  a  dry  season  of  six  months  every  year. 

Oregon  and  the  New  England  States  are  in  the  same  latitude.  In  New 
England  the  farmers  have  to  liouse  and  feed  their  cattle  all  tlie  winter, 
while  in  Oregon  they  lie  down  in  green  pastures,  and  require  no  shelter. 

Here  you  again  ])erccive  that,  as  a  rule,  climate 
mainly  depends  upon  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 

winds. 

This  rule  is  one  of  the  keys  to  Geography,  for  when  you  understand 
tlie  climates  of  a  country,  you  can  judge  of  its  productions,  and  by  its  pro- 


70 


CALIFORNIA. 


ductions  you  can  judge  of  the  occupations  and  industrial  pursuits  of  its  inhab- 
itants— and  by  their  pursuits  you  may  form  some  idea  of  their  general  char- 
acter. 

Questions. — 1.  What  diflFerence  do  you  observe  on  the  map  between  the 
coast-line  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  States  ? — Where  are  there  most  harbors, 
in  New  England  or  in  California  and  Oi-egon  ? — Which  has  the  most  tide- 
water country,  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  States  ? — Why  is  the  tide-water  belt 
of  the  Pacific  so  narrow  ?  2.  Describe  the'  table-land  between  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. — How  high  is  it? — Point  out  on  the  map 
some  of  the  inland  basins  that  are  situated  upon  it :  How  do  3'ou  tell  an  inland 
basin  ? — Are  its  lakes  fresh  or  salt  ?  3.  What  are  the  minerals  that  are  found 
here? — What  is  the  chief  industry  of  this  part  of  the  country?  4.  The 
country  here  lies  between  the  same  parallels  that  some  of  the  Atlantic  States 
do :  why  can  you  not  judge  of  the  climates  of  the  former  by  those  of  the 
latter? — Upon  what  does  the  difference  depend? — How  are  the  seasons  along 
the  Pacific  coast  generally  divided  ? — Wliy  is  not  the  year  in  Peru  divided 
into  the  rainy  season  and  the  dry,as  well  as  in  Chili  and  California? — What 
is  the  dry  season  in  California  and  Oregon  ? — Oregon  and  the  New  England 
States  are  in  the  same  latitude ;  contrast  then-  climates. — What,  by  simply 
knowing  what  the  climates  of  a  country  are,  can  the  geographer  tell 
about  it  ? 


LESSOJY  XXX nil. 

Pacific  States  and  Territories— Continued. 

California. 

This  is  the  oldest  of  the  Pacific  States.  The  Spanish 
Jesuits  established  missions  or  settlements  in  it  at  an 
early  day.  But  it  was  thinly  settled,  except  by  the 
Indians,  until  it  was  purchased  of  Mexico  in  1848,  for 
$20,000,000. 

Soon  after  that  gold  was  discovered,  and  there  was  such  a  rush  to  the  rich 
mines  from  all  parts  of  tlie  w<n-ld  as  had  never  before  been  known.  The 
population  of  California  consists  chiefly  of  Americans ;  but  all  nations,  even 
the  Chinese,  are  represented  there.  The  agricultural  are  quite  as  great  as  the 
mineral  resources  of  this  State. 


HIDING      THROUGH      THE      TRUNK      OF 


CALIFORNI.\      TREE. 


The  soil  there  produces  with  an  abundance  that  astonishes  even  the 
farmers  of  the  Southern  and  Western  States,  and  with  an  excellence  that  sur- 
prises eveiybody.  All  the  root-crops  and  culinary  vegetables  grow  there  to 
an  enormous  size ;  and  the  fruits  can  be  surpassed  neither  in  flavor  nor  size. 


Apples,  pears,  peaches,  grapes,  plums,  cherries,  and  melons,  with  the  whole 
list  of  small  fruits,  are  of  the  finest  quality.  So  also  are  wheat,  corn,  and  the 
other  cereals.  Tea,  coffee,  and  sugar,  cotton,  hemp,  and  tobacco,  find  con- 
genial climates  and  suitable  soil,  along  these  sea-tempered  slopes.  California 
is  also  a  fine  grazing  country. 

The  largest  and  tallest  trees  that  grow  have  been  found  in  the  forests  of 
this  State. 

California  produces  wheat  remarkable  for  its  hardness, 
and  for  that  reason  it  is  called  the  "  maccaroni  wheat  ;^' 
it  can  stand  the  longest  sea-voyages  without  damage, 
which  the  wheat  of  the  Atlantic  States  cannot  do. 

Immense  quantities  of  delicious  fruits  from  California,  especially  pears 
and  grapes,  are  now  sent  bj'  the  Pacific  railway  to  the  Eastern  States. 

San  Francisco  is  situated  on  the  finest  bay  along  the 
whole  coast ;  already  it  is  the  largest  seaport  town  on 
the  American  shore  of  the  Pacific. 

A  line  of 
steamers  has 
been  establish- 
ed thence  to 
China  and  Ja- 
pan. Thus  a 
way  is  being 
opened  by 
which  the  far- 
mers along  the 
Pacific  slopes 
of  the  country 
will  find  a 
ready  market 
for  all  their  sur- 
plus bread- 
stuffs;  for  In- 
dia, China,  and 
Japan  are  so 
densely  popu- 
lated that  tht 
cry  of  the  peo- 
ple there  is 
now,  and  for 
ages  has  con- 
tinually been, 
for  "bread." 
This  line  of 
steamers  has, 
with  the  aid  of 
the  Pacific  rail- 
way, already 
opened  a  tea- 
irade  between 
China  and  Chi- 
cago. 

Yosemite 
Falls,  on  the 
river  Merced, 
afford  one  of 
the  grandest 
sights  on  the 
globe ;  they  are 
the  loftiest  in 
the  world  ;  they 
are  half  a  mile 
high  —  sixteen 
times  higher 
than  Niagara.  yosemite 


OREGON.— NEVADA.— WASHINGTON,    IDAHO,    ARIZONA    AND    UTAH    TERRITORIES. 


71 


The  only  United  States  navy-yard  on  the  Pacific,  is 
at  San  Francisco. 

There  is  in  this  State  a  number  of  flourishing  towns, 
such  as  Sacramento,  Benicia,  Stockton,  Nevada,  and 
Marysville. 

Obegon. 

This  State  has  copious  rains.  Its  streams  abound 
with  excellent  fish,  and  its  forests  with  the  finest  of  tim- 
ber. It  has  a  valuable  lumber-trade.  The  winters  are 
rnild  and  the  summers  do  not  oppress  with  heat.  Its 
climates  resemble  those  of  Southern  France  along  the 
Atlantic,  more  than  they  do  those  of  the  New  England 
States  in  the  same  latitude. 

It  is  a  fine  grain  country,  but  its  wheat  will  not  bear 
long  sea-voyages  like  the  wheat  of  California.  It  there- 
fore will  not  bear  transportation  to  the  distant  markets 
of  the  world,  for  at  present  the  nearest  grain-markets  of 
the  Old  World  are  not  less  than  ten  thousand  miles  off ; 
hence  the  inhabitants  have  turned  their  attention  to 
stock-raising  and  wool-growing. 

There  is  a  bar  at  the  month  of  the  Columbia  river  which,  with  certain  winds 
and  times  of  the  tide,  becomes  dangerous  to  vessels  seeking  ingress  or  egress. 
The  whole  State  is  lacking  in  good  harbors,  but  its  commerce,  nevertheless, 
is  on  the  increase,  for  it  has  an  important  inland  trade  with  Idaho  and 
Montana,  which  is  growing  as  the  population  of  these  Territories  increases. 

The  country  between  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  the 
ocean  is  the  best  part  of  the  State,  and  is  most  thickly 
settled  :  but  its  industries  being  chiefly  agricultural  and 
pastoral,  Oregon  has  no  large  towns. 

Its  coast-range,  like  the;  AUeghanies,  but  unlike  the  Kocky  ]\[oiuitains,  ts 
clothed  with  verdure  to  the  top. 

Wa.siii \(iT()»v  Ti:hkito]iy. 

Washington  is  better  watered  than  any  of  the  Ter- 
ritories in  this  section :  it  borders  upon  the  Strait  of 
Juan  dc  Fuca  [kwnn  day  foo'hiJi),  which  unites  with  the 
ocean  the  magnificent  bays  and  liarljor.s  that  indent  the 
northwest  corner  of  this  Territory.  They  have  water 
enough  for  vessels  of  any  size,  and  room  for  the  navies 
of  the  world. 

The  Columbia  river  as  it  passes  through  this  Territory  has  some  beautiful 
falls,  which  at  a  future  day  will  be  turned  to  effective  water-power. 

Railways  have  already  been  built  around  them,  which  serve  as  portages 
for  the  river-trade  that  is  already  springing  up  between  Montana  and  this 
Territoiy. 

Lumber  is  the  chief  article  of  export  from  Washing- 
ton. Olympia,  the  capital,  stands  at  the  head  of  Paget 
Sound. 

East  of  the  Cascade  Range,  Washington  is  chiefly  a 
grazing  country. 


Nevada. 

This  is  a  new  State  ;  gold  and  silver  mines  constitute, 
at  present,  its  chief  source  of  wealth.  The  mines  are 
profitably  worked,  and  there  are  signs  of  great  prosperity 
in  the  villages  about  them. 

Some  of  its  valleys  and  shel- 
tered places  here  and  there  are 
very  fertile  ;  but  it  has  many  salt 
plains  and  barren  places,  and  the 
settlers  have  not  yet  begun  to  turn 
their  attention  from  their  mines  of 
gold  and  silver  to  agriculture,  or  to 
any  other  of  the  many  sources  of 
wealth  that  undoubtedly  abound 
there.  Virginia  City  is  the  depot 
of  supplies  for  the  mining  interests, 

Idaho,  Arizoka,  and  Utah 
Tekritories. 

These  three  Territories,  geo- 
graphicall}',  are  higli  above  the 
sea-level,  very  mountainous  and 
rugged.  With  the  exception  of 
the  mountain-passes  and  water- 
gaps  here  and  there,  they  are  sep- 
arated from  the  Western  States  by 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from 
those  that  border  on  the  Pacific  by 
the  Sierra  Nevada  range. 

These  Territories  are  mining 
countries,  and  the  settlers  are 
principall}^  engaged  in  working 
the  gold  and  silver  mines,  or  in 
trapping  and  hunting. 

Idaho,  as  the  map  shows,  is  the 
most  northern  of  the   three,  and, 
owing  to  its  distance  from  the  sea, 
to  its  elevation  and  its  latitude,  its 
snows  are  very  deep  and  its  win- 
ters severe,   so  that  communication  in    this  Territory 
from  one  part  to    another,  in  winter,  is  very  difficult, 
and  often  impossible. 

Boise  City,  the  capital  of  Idaho,  is  a  thriving  town. 
Arizona,  like  the  other  Territories  along  the  slopes  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  rich  in  minerals,  deficient  in 
water,  and  but  thinly  inhabited. 

It  was  purchased  of  Mexico,  and  is  inhabited  chiefly 
by  Indians. 


SILVEU   MINE    IN   NEVADA. 


72 


ALASKA. 


Utali  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  the  Mormons,  a  sect  who 
style  themselves  "  Latter-day  Saints."  They  profess  a 
new  revelation  from  the  Almighty,  hold  property  in 
common,  and  practise  pol^'gamy. 

Salt  Lake  City  is  the  most  important  city  of  Utah. 


SCENE     IK      SALT 


A  l<  r:      C  I  T  ^ 


Alaska.     (Map,  p.  80.) 

The  acquisition  of  this  Territory  has  extended  the 
domains  of  the  United  States  from  the  Great  Manan,  an 
island  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  on  the  eastern  shores  of 
America,  to  the  middle  of  the  Attou  Pass,  off  the 
eastern  shores  of  Asia,  which  gives  us  a  breadth  of 
border  embracing  126°  of  longitude.     (Map,  p.  20.) 

It  was  purchased  iu  1867.  It  was  called  Russian  America,  and  was  occu- 
pied by  fur-traders,  who  hunted  sea-otters,  seals,  martens,  fo.Kes,  beais,  and 
wolves.  Their  chief  settlement  was  at  Sitka.  Tlie  seal  fishery  is  very  valu- 
able, and  the  government  of  the  United  States  now  lets  it  out  by  contract. 

As  yet,  not  much  is  known  about  its  geography. 
Nevertheless,  let  us  see  if  already  we  do  not  know 
enough  of  the  principles  of  physical  geography  and  the 
laws  which  regulate  climate,  to  form  a  tolerably  correct 
idea  of  this  country. 

It  is  in  the  region  of  westerly  winds. 

It  has  an  open  sea  on  the  west,  and  therefore  the  prevailmg  winds  come 
from  the  sea  and  are  warm. 

Now  let  us  search  the  Map  of  the  World  for  some  other  shores  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  which,  with  their  adjacent  islands,  are  situated  between 


the  same  parallels  of  latitude ;  which  have  a  sea  to  the  westward,  a  continent 
for  back  country,  and  about  the  geography  of  which  observation  has  fully 
instructed  us.  Such  a  country  is  foimd  on  the  Atlantic  slopes  of  Northern 
Europe,  and  is  comprised  within  the  limits  ci  Western  Russia,  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden.  Here,  geographical  position  and  physical  aspect  cor- 
respond with  Alaska.  This  part  of  Europe,  you  see,  is  not  so  far  north  or  so 
cold  as  to  be  uninhabitable. 

The  people  in  these  parts 
of  Europe  are  seafaring. 
They  arc  largely  engaged 
in  commerce  and  manufac- 
turing, and  also  in  mining. 
Tlioir  forests  supplj  ship- 
timber  and  lumber  in  vast 
quantities.  The  soil  pro- 
duces good  crops  of  wheat 
and  bnrloy,  turnips,  pota- 
toes, mangel-wurzel  (a  root 
of  the  beet  kind)  and  other 
roots.  The  time  that  the 
cattle  have  to  be  housed  in 
winter  is  of  short  duration, 
and  the  pasturage  for  the 
rest  of  I  lie  year  is  excellent. 
Stock-raising  therefore  in 
these  countries,  with  their 
long  winter  nights,  is  an 
important  branch  of  indus- 
try. Our  science  therefore 
teaches  that  all  such  indus- 
tries will,  in  tlie  process  of 
time,  reward  the  future  in- 
habitants of  Alaska. 

The  Aleutian  Isl- 
.iiids  are  volcanic 
and  treeless  ;  the 
natives  dwell  in 
caves  and  live  upon 
the  bounties  of  the 
sea.  They  depend 
for  wood  from  wliicli  to  make  canoes,  imi)lements,  and 
utensils  of  various  sorts,  upon  the  drift  from  Asiit, 
which  is  cast  upon  their  shores  by  the  Japan  cur- 
rent, anotlicr  miglity  river  in  the  ocean,  which  an- 
swers to  the  Gulf  Stream  of  tlie  Atlantic,  and  which 
tempers  the  climates  of  these  Islands  and  this  Territory, 
as  that  stream  does  the  climates  of  the  British  Isles,  Ice- 
land, and  Northwestern  Europe. 

Mount  St.  Elias,  17,900  feet  high,  is  the  higliest  moun- 
tain in  North  America.  With  its  everhisting  cap  of 
snow,  it  stands  as  a  landmark  between  this  Territory 
and  the  British  Possessions. 

Quesfions.— Who  first  settled  California?— When  was  it  purchased  by 
the  United  States ?— "What  caused  such  a  rush  of  settlers  there?— How,  as 
compared  to  its  mineral,  are  its  agricultural  resources  ? — Enumerate  some  of 
the  numerous  articles  that  it  is  capable  of  producing. — What  kind  of  wheat 
grows  there  ?— What  kind  of  fruit  is  brought  to  the  Eastern  States  ?— Describe 
the  city  of  San  Francisco.— Which  is  the  largest  seaport  town  along  the  en- 
tire Pacific  coast  of  America  ?— Name  some  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in 
this  State. — For  what  are  its  forests  remarkable  ? 

Which  is  the  best  watered  country,  Oregon  or  California?— How  do  the 


^H^MH^A^iM 


74    STUDIES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  THE  PACIFIC  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES.— BRITISH  AMERICA. 


climates  of  Oregon  compare  with  tliose  of  the  Atlantic  States  that  lie  between 
the  same  parallels  of  latitude  ?— Does  the  Oregon  wheat  stand  sea  transporta- 
tion as  well  as  that  of  California  ? — What  circumstances  have  tended  to  en- 
courage grazing  in  this  State  ? — What  part  of  it  is  most  thickly  settled  ? — How, 
as  to  the  vegetation  growing  upon  them,  do  the  Alleghanies  and  coast-range 
ot  the  Pacific  compare  with  the  Rocky  Mountains?  (Map,  p-  78.) 

What  is  the  chief  source  of  wealth  in  Nevada  at  present? — What  is  the 
state  of  agriculture  there  ? 

Describe  the  geogi'nphical  position  of  Arizona,  Utah,  and  Idalio. — Which 
of  them  has  the  severest  climates  ? — What  are  their  chief  industries  ? 

Which  has  the  best  harbors,  Washington  Territory  or  the  State  of  Oregon  ? 
— Where  are  they  ? 

By  whom  is  Utah  inhabited  ?— What  is  its  chief  city  ? 

What  more  can  you  say  of  Arizona  ? — Of  whom  was  it  purchased  ? — Who 
are  its  inhabitants  ? 

Wlien  was  Alaska  purchased? — What  was  it  formerly  called? — By  whom 
■was  it  occupied,  and  for  what  purpose? — Name  some  of  the  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals.—Wlierc  did  the  Russians  have  their  chief  settlement? — How  many  de- 
grees of  longitude  arc  now  occupied  by  the  United  States  ? — Can  you  name 
their  extreme  eastern  and  western  possessions? — What  is  the  area  of  Alaska? 
ATM.  577,390  square  miles,  witli  a  population  of  (i.OOO,  chietiy  Russians. — 
What  is  the  country  good  liu? — What  i)ari  of  Europe  resembles  it  in 
position,  as  well  wiili  rciiJiid  I'l  s.-n  ;is  to  latitude? 

Describe  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  their  inhahilanls — Hew  do  they  get 
wood  for  their  canoes,  etc.  ? — Can  you  descril)e  the  J  ipan  current  ?— Which 
is  the  highest  mountain  in  North  America  ? — Describe  it. 


How  far  is  Salem  from  the  Columbia  river  ? — In  what  direction  from  San 
Francisco  ? — From  Virginia  City  ? 

What  is  the  lengdi  of  our  Pacific  coast? — How  far  is  it  from  Carson  City 
to  Sau  Francisco? — llow  would  you  go  from  one  place  to  the  other? — How 
far  from  Carson  to  Salt  Lake  City? — How  far  from  Great  Salt  Lake  City  to 
Fillmore  City  ? 

What  is  the  distance  of  Tucson  from  our  most  important  seaport  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean  ? — How  would  you  go  from  Sacramento  to  Salt  Lake  City  ? 

Mouufalns.— Where  is  Mount  Baker? — What  and  where  is  the  higlicst 
mountain  in  North  America  ? — What  can  you  say  of  the  mountains  of  Alaska  ? 

Chief  Towns. — Name  the  chief  town  of  California. — Of  Oregon. — OF 
Nevada.— Of  Utah.— Of  Arizona.— Of  Idaho.— Of  Washington.— Of  Alaska. 

Hays,  Capes,  and  Islands. — Name  the  bays  of  California. — Its 
capes. — Capes  of  Washington  Territory. — Capes  of  Alaska. — Its  bays. — Its 
islands. 

Miscellaneous. — Where  is  the  Strait  of  Juan  dc  Fuca  ? — Point  out 
Puget  Sound. — Where  is  the  Great  Salt  Lake  ? — Trace  it  on  the  map,  and  also 
on  the  Orograpliic  View  of  the  United  States. — AVhere  is  the  Atlou  Pass  ?— - 
How  near  to  Asia  and  Japan  docs  the  border  of  Alaska  bring  the  United 
States  ? — Where  are  the  Aleutian  Islands  ? — What  vast,  warm  current  of  the 
ocean  sets  toward  them  from  the  torrid  zone?  Aiis.  The  Japan  Stream, 
called  by  the  Japanese  the  Kuro  Siwo  [ku-ro'  sc-wo')  or    Tl/ark  ^trfiTm. 


LESSOJ^   XXXIX. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  the  Pacific  States  and  Territories. 

Extent. — How  broad  and  how  long  is  California? — What  is  the  latitude 
of  San  Francisco  ? — What  is  its  longitude  ? — How  much  of  California  is  in- 
cluded in  the  great  valley  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains ? — Bound  California  on  all  sides. — Bound  Oregon. — Bound  Nevada. — 
Bound  Arizona — Utah — Idaho — Washington  Territory. — Bound  Alaska. — 
Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  does  Alaska  lie  ? — Between  what  meridians 
of  longitude  ?    (For  Alaska,  see  p.  80.) 

What  is  the  latitude  of  Salt  Lake  City?— Its 
meridian? — What  is  the  latitude  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands  ?    (See  p.  80.) 

Rivers. — What  two  rivers  are  in  California  ? — 
Which  way  do  they  flow  ? — What  two  rivers  form 
the  Columbia? — What  is  the  shortest  distance  be- 
tween their  head-waters? — Measure  the  length  oi' 
the  Columbia  by  the  scale,  and  tell  its  length. 

What  rivei's  can  you  name  in  Nevada  ? — Where 
do  they  rise  ?— How  do  they  flow  ?— Where  do  they 
empty  ? 

Describe  the  rivers  of  Arizona?— What  rivers  ri^  i 
ir.  Utah?— How  do  they  run?— Thek  source ?-- 
Where  do  they  empty  ?— What  rivors  rise  in  Idaho  '' 
—Point  out  the  rivers  of  AVashington.— Name  th  ■ 
rivers  of  Alaska.— Point  them  out. 

Routes  and  Distances.— Bow  far  is  it  from    ^§ 
Sacramento  to  San  Francisco  ?— From  San  Fran- 
cisco to  Stockton?— To  Marysville? 


LESSOJ^   XL 

British  America.     (Map,  pp.  80,  81.) 

1.  Position. — All  that  you  have  now  learned  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  general  principles  of  geography, 
will  greatly  help  you  in  studying  the  geography  of 
British  America,  wliicli,  with  maiii-hnid,  i.shiiids,  and 
inland  waters,  embraces  an  area  of  3,500,000  scp  miles. 

On  its  southern  border  the  Domiuiou  shares  with  the  United  Slates  the 
magnificent  scenery  of  the  Niagara  Fulls. 


NIAO A  R  A     FALL8 


BRITISH    AMERICA. 


1^ 


With  the  exceptioa  of  Alaska,  British  America  in- 
cludes all  that  part  of  our  continent  north  of  the  G-reat 
Lakes  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  49th  parallel  of  north 
latitude  on  the  other.  The  prevailing  winds  come  from 
the  Pacific  side  of  the  continent,  which  therefore  receives 
the  most  warmth  and  moisture. 

2.  Political  Divisions. —  The  whole  of  British 
America  is  divided  into  Provinces,  viz..  Ontario,  Quebec, 
New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward's  Island,  Nova  Scotia, 
Xewfoundland.  Manitoba,   and  British  Columbia. 

,3.  Govermneitf. — These  provinces  or  colonies  are 
subject  to  the  British  crown,  ns  our  "old  thirteen" 
used  to  be. 

Seven  of  these  Colonies,  viz.,  Ontario,  Quebec,  New 
Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Manitoba,  British  Columbia, 
and  Prince  Edward's  Island,  are  united  in  a  confedera- 
tion under  the  title  of  "  The  Dominion  of  Canada." 

Newfoundland,  which  includes  Labrador,  has  not  j"et  joined  the  confed- 
eration,  but,  by  the  Act  of  Parliament  authorizing  the  confederation,  may 
do  so  at  pleasure.  The  Northwest  and  Northeast  Territories  (Map,  pp.  80, 
81)  are  unorganized. 

This  new  Dominion  is  governed  by  a  Congress  and  President  somewhat 
as  tlie  United  States  are,  but  with  this  dilference,  that  whereas  the  chief 
magistrate  with  us  is  elected  by  vote — with  them  he  is  appointed  by  the 
Crown.  His  title  is  Governor-Oeneral  of  Canada.  Their  Congress  is  caUed 
the  Parliament. 

4.  Area. — The  whole  of  the  British  possessions  in 
America  to  the  north  of  us,  embraces  an  area  about  equal 
to  that  of  the  United  States.  Much  of  it  is  considered 
uninhabitable  b}'  reason  of  its  severe  climate;  and  so  it 
is  (d  present.  It  is  but  thinly  poi)ulated  because  of  the 
abundance  of  cheaper  and  better  lands  with  milder  cli- 
mates in  other  parts  of  America. 

a.  Comparative  Geography.— The  climate  of  Siberia  is  as  severe 
and  the  winters  are  as  long  as  in  any  part  of  British  America;  yet  in 
latitudes  in  Siberia  which  are  considered  uninhabitable  in  America,  we  find 
large  and  flourishing  cities  and  towns. 

Ill  British  America  there  is  no  settlement  to  the 
north  of  latitude  55°  ;  there  are  only  trading-posts. 

On  the  north  side  of  this  parallel  in  Asia  (see  Mer- 
cator's  riiart)  the  cities  of  Omsk,  Tomsk,  and  Tobolsk, 
each  with  a  population  of  20,000  souls  and  upward, 
are  found 

In  Europe  we  have,  very  near  to  the  parallel  of  60° 
N.  lat.,  the  splendid  capital  of  Russia,  St.  Petersburg, 
with  more  than  half  a  million  of  people  within  its  walls. 

But  St.  Petersburg,  it  may  be  objected,  is  not  a  fair  comparison,  inasmuch 
as  it  has  a  sea  to  the  windward,  with  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  at 
no  great  distance  beyond,  to  supply  its  prevailing  west  winds  with  heat  and 
moisture  for  the  mitigation  of  tlie  rigors  of  winter. 

Then  let  us  take  Moscow.  Moscow  is  too  far  inland  to  be  affected  by  the 
sfa;  it  is  in  higher  latitude  tlian  any  white  man's  settlement  in  British 
America,  and  yet  has  a  population  of  more  tiian  350,000. 


Nay,  a  spot  colder  than  any  ever  encountered  by  arctic  voyagers  is  in  lati- 
tude 64°  north  in  Asiatic  Russia.  Upon  that  spot  stauds  and  flouiishes  the 
Russian  city  of  Yakutsk,  with  its  population  of  10,000  souls.  There,  in  win- 
ter, mercury  freezes,  and  the  temperature  sinks  down  more  tlian  100°  below 
the  freezing  point  of  fresh  water,  and  the  ground  is  perpetual]}-  frozen  to  the 
depth  of  60  feet. 

Moreover,  British  America,  up  to  its  remotest  limits,  is  already  inhabited 
by  Indians,  and  where  the  savage  can  live,  surely  civilized  man,  with  the 
vast  advantages  which  knowledge  gives  him,  may  also  live. 

6.  The  Fertile  Belt. — There  is  in  the  Dominion  a 
belt  of  pine  country  extending  from  the  borders  of 
Lake  Superior  across  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  It 
is  called  the  "Fertile  Belt." 

Manitoba  and  the  Saskatchawan  river  are  within  the 
range  of  this  belt.  It  is  in  the  mild-winter  belt  already 
described.     (See  p.  65.) 

Upon  it  the  snow  is  light,  and  immense  herds  of 
buff,  do  find  pasturage  all  winter. 

It  is  a  good  grass,  wheat,  and  barley  country. 

This  belt  extends  from  latitude  49°  to  54*^  40'  along 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  lies  between  the  same  parallels 
as  Labrador. 

In  Labrador,  on  the  east,  you  find  treeless  plains,  white  with  snow  for  eight 
months  every  year,  and,  except  in  sheltered  spots,  you  have  the  limestone 
rocks,  covered  simply  with  a  skin  of  moss,  wliicli  you  can  pull  off  in  large 
flakes,  and  then  the  bare  surface  of  the  rock  is  exposed,  the  soil  is  so  thin. 

In  British  Columbia,  on  the  west,  and  between  the 
same  parallels,  the  land  is  covered  with  soil,  and  for- 
ests of  pine  and  fir  which  are  of  a  height  and  girth 
unknown  even  in  the  Atlantic  States. 

Strawberries  and  roses  grow  wild  in  the  fields  there- 
and  the  ground  in  winter  is  seldom  covered  with  snow 
for  more  than  two  weeks  at  a  time. 

If  you  were  to  travel  north  from  the  Great  Lakes  through  the  Dominion 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  you  would  remark,  at  the  end  of  every  day's  journey, 
that  the  trees  had  become  more  dwarfed  and  the  vegetation  more  scanty, 
until  at  last  mosses  and  lichens  would  occupy  the  landscape. 

As  the  cold  weather  approaches,  the  bears  and  foxes  and  other  animals 
in  those  cold  countries  lay  aside  their  coats  of  gray,  brown,  and  other  sum- 
mer colors,  and  put  on  their  winter  robes  of  white.  All  the  animals  there 
are  white  in  winter. 

7.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  contains  a  population  of 
3,500,000  whites  and  half-breeds,  and  the  population 
of  the  territories  is  estimated  at  28,700,  mostly  Indians. 

Qnestions. — 1.  Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  does  the  Dominion 
lie  ?— From  what  quarter  do  the  prevailing  winds  there  blow  V— On  which 
side,  the  Pacific  or  the  Atlantic,  do  they  bring  most  warmth  and  moisture? 
2.  What  are  the  Provinces  of  British  America?  3.  Under  what  govern- 
ment are  the  Provinces  ? — What  title  includes  seven  of  them  ? — How  is  the 
Dominion  governed  ?  4.  How  does  British  America  compare  in  size  with 
the  United  States  ?— Where  is  it  ?  5.  Compare  the  climates  of  the  Domin- 
ion with  those  of  Europe  and  Asia  in  the  same  latitude,  and  tell  your  con- 
clusions as  to  the  possible  future  of  this  part  of  America. — What  animals 
find  pasturage  there?  6.  Where  is  the  "Fertile  Belt?"— Of  what  color  in 
winter  are  the  animals  in  the  frozen  regions?  7.  What  is  the  population  of 
the  Dominion  ? — Is  it  most  dense  on  the  Atlantic  or  the  Pacific  side  ? 


-   \ 


76 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA.— ONTARIO    AND    QUEBEC. 


LESSOJV  XLI. 

The  Provinces  of  British  America. 
The  Dominion  of  Canada, 

Population,  3,500,000.     Capital,  Ottawa,  22,000. 

By  an  Act  of  Parliament,  1867,  the  Provinces  of  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  the  two  Oanadas  were 
united  under  one  confederation  and  called  the  "  Dominion 
of  Canada,"  and  the  names  of  Canada  West  and  Cana- 
da East  were  changed,  the  former  to  Ontario,  the 
latter  to  Quebec,  and  permission  given  for  the  other 
provinces  to  join  the  confederation.  Manitoba,  Col- 
umbia, and  Prince  Edward's  Island   have  done  so. 


QUEBEC. 


The  Canadas  belonged  to  the  French,  and  were  set- 
tled by  them.  They  founded  the  city  of  Quebec  the 
year  after  the  settlement  of  Jamestown,  Va. 

Ontakio  and  Quebec. 

From  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  sea,  the  country  is  dotted 
with  beautiful  lakes,  which  serve  in  winter,  while  not 
frozen  over,  as  so  many  little  furnaces  to  mitigate  the 
severe  cold. 

Ontario  is  a  peninsula  with  a  climate  like  that  of 


Michigan.    It  has  1,620,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  most 
populous,  productive,  and  prosperous  of  the  Provinces. 
It  is  a  fine  wheat  country,  and  its  inhabitants  during 
the   long   winters   engage   extensively   in    the    lumber 
business. 

The  forests  abound  with  the  sugar-maple,  and  the  making  of  sugar  from 
it  is  another  important  branch  of  winter  industry. 

Coal,  iron,  rock-oil,  copper,  and  gold  are  among  its 
minerals.  Toronto,  with  a  population  of  56,000,  is  the 
chief  town. 

Tue  Province  of  Quebec  lies  further  north  than  the  Province  of  Ontario. 
It  does  not  get  llie  winter  winds,  while  3'et  they  have  in  them  the  warmth 
they  derived  in  their  passage  over  the  lakes,  and  therefore  it  has  a  colder  cli- 
mate than  Ontario. 

In  1759  a  celebrated  battle,  which  gave   the  Canadas  to  England,  was 

fought  between  the  French  and 
English  before  the  ^alls  of  Que- 
bec, on  the  Heights  of  Abialiani. 
General  Wolfe  and  the  Marquis 
of  Montcalm,  the  two  opposing 
generals,  both  fell,  each  bravely 
leading  his  forces  into  battle; 
and  in  admiration  of  their 
knightly  bearing  and  noble  gal- 
lantry, a  single  monument  now 
stands  on  the  bloody  plain,  in 
honor  alike  of  the  vanquished 
and  the  victor. 

Til  is   battle  wrested 
the  Cniuidas  from  the 
French  and  placed  them 
under  the  British  flng, 
where    they    still    re- 
main.    It  decided   the 
(luestion  wliich  was  then 
tienibling    in  the    bal- 
ance   as    to    which    of 
these       two       nations 
should    have     the    as- 
cendency      in       com- 
merce.    That  of  Eng- 
land  is  now  so  great 
that  it  employs  a  fleet 
of  20,000  vessels. 
The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Quebec  are  the 
descendants  of  the  early  French  settlers,  who  still  pro- 
fess the  religion  of  their  fathers,  which  is  Koman  Catho- 
lic, and  use  their  mother-tongue,  which  is  French. 

In  consideration  of  this,  the  constitution  that  has  just  been  granted  by  the 
Queen  of  En-land  requires  that  the  Parliament  of  the  Dominion,  and  the 
Legislature  of  Quebec,  shall  keep  their  records  in  both  the  English  and  the 
French  languages. 

Ontario  was  settled  chiefly  by  English  and  Ameri- 
cans. They  are  Protestants  ;  and  English  is  the  lan- 
guage generally  spoken  there. 


NEW    BRUNSWICK.— NOVA    SCOTIA.— PRINCE    EDWARDS    ISLAND.— NEWFOUNDLAND.        Tl 


Quebec,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Quebec,  with  a  population  of  60,000, 
is  beautifully  situated  on  a  high  blutf.  It  is  one  of  the  few  walled  towns 
on  this  continent,  and  is  so  strongly  fortified  as  to  win  for  itself  tlie  name 
of  "  The  Gibraltar  of  America." 

The  scenery  around  this  city  is  enchanting.  The  picturesque  falls  and 
the  natural  steps  of  Montmorenci  are  near  it. 


THE     FALLS     AND     N  A   1    I 


T  K  I>  s      OP     MONTMORENCI. 


Montreal,  with  a  population  of  107,000,  is  tlie  largest  city  in  the  Dominion. 

New  Brunswick. 

New  Brunswick,  also  one  of  the  provinces  of  the 
Dominion,  has  a  population  of  285,000.  Its  inhabitants 
are  more  maritime  in  their  pursuits  than  those  of  either 
Dtitario  or  Quebec. 

TJK!  forests  of  New  Brunswick  afford  abundant  sup- 
plies of  ship-timber,  both  for  the  navy  and  the  commer- 
cial marine  of  England. 

This  y)rovince  abounds  in  coal  and  iron  as  well  as  iu 
ship-timber  ;  but  the  industrial  energies  of  its  people 
are  directed  chiefly  to  the  lumber  business,  and  the  sea 
fisheries. 

St.  John,    with  a  population  of  30,000,  is  its  cliief  town. 

Nova  Scoti.\. 

Nova  Scotia,  you  observe,  is  a  peninsula.  The  island 
of  Cape  Breton  belongs  to  it,  and  the  two  together,  with 
a  population  of  388,000,  form  the  fourth  grand  division 
of  the  New  Dominion. 

The  shores,  both  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick, 
are  scoured  by  the  tides  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 

These  tides  rise  twice  and  fall  twice,  daily ;  attaining  at  the  full  and  change 


of  the  moon,  the  enormous  height  of  sixty  and  sometimes  even  of  seventy 
feet  above  low-water  mark.  This  great  rise  is  effected  in  the  brief  space  of 
six  hours.  The  flood  rushes  in  with  such  force  that  it  has  been  known  to 
overtake  and  swallow  up,  ere  they  can  escape,  herds  of  deer,  swine  and  other 
animals  that  happen  to  be  passing  or  feeding  along  the  shore.  These  are  the 
highest  tides  in  the  world. 

Nova  Scotia  is  on  the 
way-side  of  the  great 
thoroughfare  for  all 
vessels  passing  to  and 
fro  between  North 
America  and  Europe. 
It  is  the  most  eastern 
point  of  our  continent 
south  of  Labrador,  and 
is  the  nearest  to  Eu- 
rope. 

Many  of  the  ocean  steamers 
that  ply  between  England  and 
the  United  States  touch  at  Hali- 
fax, both  coming  and  going. 
The  harbor  is  unsurpassed  by 
any  other  in  America.  It  is  the 
]irincipal  naval  station  of  Great 
Britain  on  this  side  of  the  At- 
lantic. English  men-of-war  are 
constantly  to  be  seen  putting  in 
there  for  orders,  supplies,  fresh 
outfits,  and  repairs. 

Halifax — population 
67,000— is,  therefore, 
as  you  may  imagine,  a  place  of  much  importance.  It 
is  a  flourishing  town,  and  has  a  large  trade  with  the 
United  States,  chiefly  in  potatoes,  fish,  coal,  gypsum, 
and  grindstones. 

Nova  Scotia  has  a  healthful  climate,  and  the  timber 
business  is  an  important  one. 

Herds  of  moose  and  deer  are  still  to  be  found  there. 

During  the  deep  snows  of  winter,  these  animals  fortify  themselves  against 
the  wolves  by  ramparts,  called  "  Elk-yards,"  which  they  build  in  the  snow. 

Prince  Edward's  Island. 

Prince  Edward's  Island  is  of  nearly  the  same  size  as 
Delaware.  It  has  95,000  inhabitants.  It  is  nestled  in 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  is  ])rotected  by  Newfound- 
land from  the  icebergs  that  float  in  the  Atlantic.  It  is 
sheltered  by  the  highlands  of  New  Brunswick  from  the 
west  winds  of  Quebec.  Consequently,  it  has  a  milder 
climate  than  either  of  these  provinces. 

The  chief  industry  of  the  island  is  fishing  and  ship- 
building, tillage  and  pasturage. 

Newfoundland 

Is  cold  and  sterile  ;  the  soil  does  not  yield  enough  to 
feed  the  people,  who  number  147,000.  They  derive 
their  means  of  living  mainly  from  the  sea.     Fishing  and 


78 


LABRADOR. 


sealing  is  their  chief  occupation.  One-fifth  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island  reside  in  the  city  of  St.  Johns,  which 
has  a  population  of  25,000. 


F  I  s  1 1  I  N  ( 


l;  .\  N  I)     BANKS     OP     N  E  K  F 


The  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  lie  to  the  eastward  of  this  island. 
The  depth  of  water  upon  them  varies  from  ten  to  one  hundred  fathoms,  and 
they  embrace  an  area  of  more  than  100,000  square  miles.  They  are  one  of 
the  treasuries  of  the  ocean,  for  they  are  the  most  extensive  and  valuable 
fishing-grounds  in  the  known  w^orld. 

In  the  spring  and  summer  of  every  year,  immense  shoals  of  cod,  mackerel, 
and  other  fish  resort  there,  and  are  taken  in  great  numbers  by  the  French, 
English,  and  Americans. 

Seal-lishiog  on  the  icebergs,  as  they  drift  down  along  the  shores  of  New- 
foundland, commences  in  the  spring. 


ST.     .JOHNS. 


In  the  city  of  St.  Johns,  entire  acres  of  ground  are  to 
b,e  found  covered  with  sheds  that  are  shingled  over  with 


codfish,  split  in  two,  and  spread  out  there  to  dry  ;  and 
in  that  beautiful  harbor,  ships  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  may  be  seen  taking  in  cargoes  of  fish. 

The  celebrated  Newfoundland  dog  attains  his 
most  complete  development  in  this  island,  and  is 
used  as  a  draught  animal.  Bears,  wolves,  and 
reindeer  also  are  common. 

It  is  off"  the  shores  of  Newfound- 
land that  the  cold  cui-rent  which 
comes  down  through  Davis  Straits 
meets  with  the  warm  waters  of  the 
Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  out  through 
the  straits  of  Florida,  and  produces 
those  dense  fogs  which  envelop  the 
shores  of  New  England,  as  well  as 
those  of  Newfoundland,  and  which 
often  make  navigation  dangerous. 
Many  a  noble  ship  has  been  run 
on  Cape  Kace  because  of  these  fogs, 
and  been  lost. 

In  late  sunuiicr  and  in  autumn  the  cold  current 
I'  •  ... 

from  Uie  north  brings  down,  ui  immense  ([uanti- 

ties,  huge  icebergs,  some  of  Uiem  more  than  one  huiulred  feet  high,  and 
measuring  miles  in  circumference.  These  are  also  very  dangerous  to  navi- 
gation. They  reach  hundreds  of  teet  below  the  surface,  and  when  a  ship 
strikes  against  one  it  is  like  striking  against  a-  rock.  They  often  lodge  on 
the  Grand  Banks,  where  they  remain  until  broken  up  by  the  sea,  or  melted 
away  by  the  warmth  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

One  end  of  the  Atlantic  telegraph  crosses  these 
banks  on  its  way  from  Valentia  Bay,  Ireland  ;  it  was 
successfully  landed  in  1866  at  Heart's  (^jntent,  a  small 

cove  of  Trinity  Bay,  New- 
foundland. 

There  are  three  cables  now  ;  one 
French  and  two  English  ;  the  latter 
have  several  times  been  broken. 

Labrador  is  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  Ncwfoiiiid- 
land,  but  it  is  a  cold  and 
inhospitable  country.  Al- 
though in  the  latitude  of 
.some  of  the  fairest  parts  of 
Great  Britain,  Labrador 
has  a  climate  too  severe 
to  ripen  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary cereals  ;  but  barley 
cut  when  green  makes 
goad  fodder,  and  pota- 
toes and  a  few  vegeta- 
bles sometimes  do  well. 
The  country  is  resorted  to  in  the  summer  by  fishermen 
and  trappers  for  the  sake  of  its  seals  and  other  fur-bear- 


W^^^«B*» 


MANITOBA. 


79 


ing  animals.     It  is  peopled  on  the  north,  especially  on 
the  Bay  of  Ungava,  by  the  hardy  Esquimaux, 


ESQUIMAUX, 

Manitoba  and  the  Northwest. 

Nearly  200  years  ago  the  king  of  Great  Britain 
granted  a  charter  to  a  company  of  English  merchants, 
called  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  which  gave  it  the 
exclusive  right  to  trap  and  trade  in  all  that  part  of 
British  America  which  lies  north  of  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  and  which  has  lately  been  annexed  to 
the  Dominion, 

The  beaver,  tlie  marten,  the  muskrat,  hare,  wolf,  fox,  reindeer,  and  bear 
all  abound  here,  and  afford  excellent  furs  and  peltries.  Tiie  Company  estab- 
lished various  trading-posts  throughout  these  regions,  the  chief  of  which  is 
Fort  York,  at  the  mouth  of  Nelson's  river,  on  Hudson  Bay. 

The  new  province  of  Manitoba,  which  embraces  the 
Red  River  Settlement,  established  in  1813  by  Lord 
Selkirk,  south  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  in  what  was  formerly 
a  part  of  Rupert's  Land,  has  a  population  of  12,000 
(Census  of  1871),  made  up  chiefly  of  the  descendants 
of  the  early  Scotch  and  French  settlers,  and  of  half- 
breeds  and  Indians.  It  has  a  Lieut.-Governor,  a  nom- 
inated Legislative  Council,  and  an  elective  assembly. 

The  vast  Northwest  Territoiy  is  governed  under  a  separate  commission 
\>y  the  Lieut.-Governor  of  Manitoba, 

The  country  consists  of  wild  prairie,  unclaimed  for- 


ests, and  treeless  wastes  of  moss  and  lichens,  rocks,  ice, 
and  snow. 

British  Columbia  and  Vancouver  Island. 

These  have  been  united  into  one  province. 
They  are  rich  in  minerals,  pasturage,  and  tim- 
ber ;  Yancouver  particularly  in  coal,  and  Brit- 
ish Columbia  particularly  in  gold,  but  both  in 
grass  and  forests.     They  are  in  the  Dominion. 

They  have  a  sea  to  windward,  and  though  they 
comprise  parallels  of  latitude  that  are  included 
within  Labrador — which  is  uninhabitable — their 
winter  climate  is  so  moist  and  mild  that  the 
=  country  is  not  only  inhabitable  for  man,  but  the 
cattle  in  winter  can  face  the  cold  without  shelter, 
and  can  also  find  green  pastures. 

These  colonies  have  been  recently  established.  Their  entire 
population,  including  Indians,  does  not  exceed  50,000 ;  conse- 
quently, they  have  not  yet  industrial  force  enough  to  develop  the 
resources  of  the  country  ;  nor  has  there  been  time  for  industry  to 
adjust  itself  in  regular  and  permanent  channels. 

Questions. — What  provinces  form  the  Dominion  of  Canada? 
— By  what  Act? — Describe  the  face  of  the  country  in  Quebec  and 
&s=*  a?  Ontario. — Which  is  the  most  populous  province  ? — What  is  its  p(jpu- 
-^  _  lation? — Its  productions? — Which  is  its  chief  town? — What,  its 
"^  population? — Which  is  the  colder  country,  Quebec  or  Ontario? — 
Who  first  colonized  the  Canadas? — What  city  did  they  found? — 
In  what  year  was  the  great  battle  there  fought,  which  decided  the 
question  of  their  commercial  supremacy? — How  large  is  England's 
fleet  of  merchantmen? — What  religion  do  the  inhabitants  of  Que- 
bec still  profess  ? — Why  has  England  required  the  Assembly  of 
Quebec  and  the  Parliament  of  the  Dominion  to  publish  their  acts 
both  in  French  and  English  ?— Bj  whom  was  Ontario  settled? — What  is  the 
pievailing  religion  there? — Describe  the  city  of  Quebec. 

What  is  the  population  of  New  Brunswick  ? — What  are  the  chief  branches 
of  industry  of  its  inhabitants  ? — What  minerals  has  it  ? — What  is  its  chief 
town  ? — What  is  the  shape  of  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia  ? 

What  large  island  belongs  to  it? — What  is  the  population  of  the  two? — 
How  high  do  the  tides  rise  on  some  parts  of  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia  ? — De- 
scribe the  position  of  Nova  Scotia  with  regard  to  Europe. — What  makes  Hal- 
ifax a  place  of  so  much  importance? — What  is  its  population? — In  what  does 
its  trade  with  the  United  States  chiefly  consist? — What  wild  animals  abound 
on  this  peninsula  ? — What  is  an  "  elk-yard  ?" 

How  large  is  Prince  Edward's  Island  ? — What  is  its  population  ? — What 
is  the  chief  industry  of  its  inhabitants  ? — What  is  the  population  of  New- 
foimdland  ? — Desciibe  its  climate  and  soil. — How  do  the  people  live  there  ? — 
What  are  their  chief  occupations  ? 

Tell  where  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  are. — Describe  them. — 
When  is  the  fishing  season? — Wliat  do  they  "fish"  f(u- on  the  icebergs ?— 
Where  do  tiie  Newfoundlanders  dry  their  fish? — What  is  the  cause  of  the 
dense  Newfoundland  fogs? — Of  M'hat  inconvenience  are  these  fogs? — What 
else  besides  fogs  endangers  navigation  there  ? — How  large  are  some  of  these 
icebergs  ? — What  is  the  season  for  them  ? — What  inconvenience  sometimes 
occurs  from  the  grounding  of  icebergs  on  the  Grand  Banks? — What  Province 
has  jurisdiction  over  Labrador? — Why  is  it  so  thinly  inhabited? 

When  was  Hudson's  Bay  Company  chartered? — For  what  purpose? — 
What  animals  did  they  hunt  and  trap  ? 

What  is  the  new  name  of  Winnipeg? — Of  whom  does  this  population 
consist  ? — What  is  their  religion  ? — Describe  the  general  character  of  the  coun- 
try?— Of  what  two  provinces  does  British  Columbia  consist? — What  are 
their  natural  resources? — They  are  in  the  same  latitude  as  Labrador;  why 
are  their  winters  so  much  milder? — What  is  their  present  population  ? 


LcngltuJe  Weat    ift)    tcum  Greenvriuh. 


82 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    BRITISH    AMERICA.— DANISH    AMERICA. 


LESSOJV  XLII. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  British  America. 

boundaries  and  Siibdivisions.—Bound  British  America  on  all  sides. 
— What  great  Bay  iuterwashes  Britisli  America  ? — Where  are  the  seven  pro- 
vinces of  the  Dominion  of  Canadi\:  Nova  Scotia;  New  Brunswick  ;  Quebec; 
Ontario;  Manitoba;  British  Columbia? — Where  is  Newfoundland"? — Prince 
Edward's  Island  ? — Cape  Breton  ? — Labrador  ?— Between  what  meridians  and 
jiarallels  does  British  America  lie  ?— How  far  is  it  from  Cape  Race  to  Queen 
Charlotte's  Island  V — How  far,  measuring  by  the  scale,  is  Melville  Sound  from 
the  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude? — What  is  the  latitude  of  Newfoundland  ? 
Mountains  and  Watersheds, — What  mountains  traverse  British 
America  on  the  West?— What  are  their  highest  peaks? — How  high  is  Mount 
St.  Elias  ? — Where  can  j^ou  find  an}-  watersheds  in  British  America  ? —  Ton  can 
always  find  the  icater sheds  of  a  country  by  lookinrj  for  the  sources  of  the  rivers 
and  tracing  the  outlines  of  tfie  country  draifudby  tfiem.    (See  Wall  Map.) 

Rivers. — What  river  separates  Quebec  from  Ontario? — Where  are  the 
sources  of  the  St.  Lawrence? — Its  mouth? — In  what  direction  does  it  flow? — 
What  purpose  does  the  St.  Lawrence  serve  ?  Ans.  As  a  waste-gate  stream  : 
IT  DISCHARGES  THE  SURPLUS  WATERS  OF  THE  Great  Lakes.  (See  the  Dia- 
f/ram  of  the  Great  Lakes.) — Name  all  the  principal  rivers  of  British 
America. — Where  are  the  head-waters  of  the  Mackenzie  ? — Describe  its  course 
and  tell  its  tributaries. — Describe  the  Red  river  from  source  to  mouth. — What 
do  you  know  of  the  Saskatchawan  ?— The  Churchill  ?— The  Nelson?— Tlie 
Severn? — The  Great  Fish  river? — AVliere  does  the  Columbia  river  rise? 
What  river  rises  in  British  America  and  runs  through  Alaska? 

ILahes. — What  lake  lies  between  Lake  Ontario  and  Georgian  Bay  ? — 
Where  is  Lake  Winnepeg  ?^vLake  of  the  Woods  ? — Lake  Athabasca  ? — Great 
Slave  Lake? — Great  Bear  Lake? — Lake  Nipissing  (nip'iss-ing)^ — From  what 
lake  does  the  St.  Lawrence  river  issue? — Name  the  Great  Lakes  in  order. 

Gulfs,  Bays,  and  Sounds. — Where  is  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence?— 
Where  is  the  Bay  of  Fuudy? — Where  is  James  Bay? — Find  Coronation 
Gulf— Gulf  of  Boothia.— Where  is  Baffin  Bay  ?— Melville  Sound?— Lancas- 
ter Sound  ?— Fox  Channel  ? 

Straits  and  Capes.— BeWe  Isle  Strait  ? — Davis  Strait  ? — Hudson  Strait  ? 
—Strait  of  Prince  of  Wales  ?— Cape  Sable  ?— Cape  Rjxce  ?— Cape  Chidleigh  ?— 
Cape  Bathurst  ? 

Islands. — What  islands  are  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence? — What  islands 
border  it? — Where  is  Anticosti  Island? — Melville  Island? — Vancouver 
Island? — Queen  Charlotte? 

Cities. — Where.is  Quebec  ? — Montreal  ? — Ottawa  ? — Toronto  ? — St.  John's 
(Newfoundland)?— Halifax?— St.  John?— Where  is  New  Westminster? 

Motites  of  Travel  and  Trade.— What  is  the  course  and  distance 
from  Toronto  to  Ottawa? — Toronto  to  Detroit? — Toronto  to  Kingston? — 
To  Montreal? — To  Quebec  City?— What  is  the  route  and  distance  from 
Quebec  to  Portland  in  Maine? — Which  way  is  St.  John  from  Frederick- 
ton? — Course  and  distance  from  St.  John  to  Halifa.v? — How  far  is  it  from 
the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  ? — How  far  is  it 
from  head  of  the  Hudson  river  to  St.  Lawrence  river? — How  would  you  go 
from  Halifax  to  Pictou? — How  far  from  Newfoundland  to  Labrador? — How 
far  is  Prince  F.dward's  Island  from  New  Brunswick  ? — From  Nova  Scotia  ? 

Miscellaneous, — What  is  the  area  of  British  America? — Where  is  Fort 
York  ? — Where  is  the  Northwest  Passage  f  (Refer  to  the  Trade  and  Voyage 
Chart,  the  last  map  in  the  book ) — How  is  Nova  Scotia  separated  from  Cape 


Breton? — Describe  the  location  of  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland. — 
What  is  their  area  ? — Where  was  the  Atlantic  cable  successfully  lauded  in 
18G6  ? — How  would  you  go  by  ship  from  Toronto  to  Cleveland  ? 


LESSOJY    XLIII. 

Danish  Amorica. 

Danish  America  consists  of  Grrecnland,  Icclant],  and 
three  small  islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

Greenland. 

Of  the  geography  of  G-reenland  little  is  known,  ex- 
cept as  to  the  Western  and  Southern  coasts. 

It  lies  just  in  the  midst  of  the  great  icy  and  ice- 
bearing  currents  tliat  come  out  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
It  stretches  from  the  i)arallel  of  G0°  north  to  an  un- 
known extent  toward  the  Polo.  The  western  shores 
are  rugged,  mountainous,  indented  with  numerous  fiords 
and  creeks,  and  fringed  with  islands. 

The  lofty  interior  seems  like  one  immense  glacier,  and 
some  have  supposed  that  Grrecnland  was  made  up  of  a 
multitude  of  ice-islands  frozen  perpetually  together. 

No  trees  flourish  there.  A  few  culinary  vegetables 
are  occasionally  raised,  but  the  hardiest  cereals  have 
failed. 

The  population  consists  of  about  1000  Danes,  with  a 
native  and  mixed  element  numbering  9,000. 

The  commerce  consists  mainly  in  the  exchange  of  the 
skins  of  seals,  reindeer,  and  other  animals,  with  eider- 
down, train-oil,  whalebone,  and  fish,  for  the  comforts  of 
European  life. 

Godhavu  (god'hown),  situated  on  a  small  island, 
is  the  principal  place  toward  the  North.  Upernavik, 
in  latitude  73°,  is,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  most  north- 
erly permanent  abode  of  man. 

Frederickshaab  is  famous  as  the  place  where  Otto 
Fabricius  spent  the  long  winter  nights  translating  the 
Scriptures  into  the  Greenland  language. 

Greenland,  it  is  supposed  by  geographers,  extends 
to  within  a  few  hundred  miles  of  the  Pole.  In  1854, 
Dr.  Kane's  expedition,  after  forcing  its  way  over  the 
ice  barrier  of  Smith's  Strait,  amid  intense  cold,  reached 
nearly  to  the  high  and  mild  latitude  of  83°  north. 

There  they  discovered  an  open  and  iceless  sea,  having  a  temperature  of 
four  degrees  above  the  freezing-point  of  fresh  water. 

The  waves  of  the  sea  dashed  on  the  beach  with  the  swell  of  ocean,  and 
the  tides  ebbed  and  flowed.  Seals  were  sporting,  and  water-fowl  were  feed- 
ing in  the  open  waters. 


ICELAND. 


83 


kane'8   open   polar  sea. 


Iceland. 

Iceland  contains  an  area  of  30,000  square  miles.  Its 
inteiior  is  marked  by  vast  plains  of  cracked  and  frac- 
tured lava;  deep,  yawning  crevasses;  swollen,  unbridged 
streams;  deep  bogs,  and  natural  steam  and  vapor  baths. 


THE     GREAT     OETBER. 


The  ice-mountains 
called  Yokuls  are 
volcanoes,  occasion- 
ally in  violent  erup- 
tion. 

The  loftiest  of  these,  the 
Oeraefa  Yokul,  on  the  south- 
east coast,  is  6,42(5  feet 
above  the  sea.  Mount  Hecla, 
in  the  interior,  is  5  110  feet. 

The  Geysers  (gMsers), 
or  Boiling  Springs,  are, 
however,  the  most  striking 
physical  feature  of  Iceland. 

The  vegetation  of 
Iceland,  though 
dwarfed  and  scanty, 
is  far  better  than 
that  of  Greenland. 
Grain  will  not  ripen 
in  Iceland,  but 
garden  vegetables 
are  raised,  and, 
along  the  coast,  grass 
grows  in  quantities 
sufticient  to  sustain 
the  cattle. 

Iceland-moss  is  a 
valuable  article  of* food,  and  is  exported.  Sea-fowl,  in- 
cluding the  eider-duck,  abound  ;  splendid  trout  are 
found  in  the  streams,  and  important  fisheries  are  con- 
ducted on  the  sea-shore.  Reindeer  run  wild  in  large 
herds,  and  the  polar  bear  is  occasionally  lodged  on  the 
island  by  a  cake  of  drift-ice  from  the  North. 

The  animal  is  said  to  be  easily  killed,  being  exhausted  for  want 
of  food  during  his  voyage  from  distant  shores. 

On  the  easiern  coasts,  much  drift-wood  from 
the  Tropics  is  obtained  for  fuel  ;  it  is  washed 
there  by  the  warm  Gulf  Stream. 

Reikiavik  {re'ke-a-viJc),  the  chief  town,  is  a 
small  hamlet. 

The  population  of  Ireland  is  (50,000.  The  language  is  Norwe- 
gian. The  people  are  fond  of  lileratiire,  and  have  made  from  their 
ancient  .mguK  vahiable  contributions  to  the  history  of  America, 
claiming  its  discovery  by  them  500  years  before  Columbus. 

Qtiesfions.^Of  v,h;\\  docs  Danish  America  consist? — Is  much 
known  of  Greenland  V— Where  does  it  lie  ?— Its  extent  ?— Bound  the 
three  known  sides.  (Se<-  ISIercator's  Chart  of  the  World.)-De- 
scril.e   its  vegetation— Its    population— Commerce— Some    of    its 

towns 

Wliat  is  the  area  of  Iceland  ?  (Refer  to  Mercator's  Chart  of  the 
World.)— Describe  its  interior.— What  are  YOkuls  ?— Describe  the 
Gevsers.— Vegetation.— For  what  is  Iceland-moss  used?— What  is 
saidofgame?— Of  drift-wood?— Name  a  town  in  Iceland.— When 
do  the  Icelanders  claim  to  have  discovered  America? 


84 


MEXICO. 


LESSOJV   XLIV. 

Mexico. 

1.    Mexico,  before  the  Discovery  of  America.— 

Before  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  Mexico 
was  the  seat  of  a  most  civilized  and  powerful  empire. 

Montezuma  was  its  king  ;  the  Aztecs  were  his  sub- 
jects. 

His  splendid  Capital,  adorned  with  statues  and  paint- 
ings, stood  where  the  City  of  Mexico  now  stands.  In  it 
he  had  groves  and  fountains,  temples,  baths,  and  palaces. 
His  fish-pools,  his  zoological  and  botanical  gardens  wei'o 
better  stocked  and  filled  than  any  at  that  time  in  Europe. 
Indeed,  the  idea  of  a  garden  of  plants,  in  which  the 
capitals  of  Europe  now  boast  themselves,  was  borrowed 
from  Mexico. 

The  Mexicans  of  that  day  had  laws,  common-schools, 
institutions  of  learning,  and  an  academy  of  science  and 
art.  In  astronomy  they  were  almost  as  far  advanced 
as  the  Europeans. 

Their  calendar-stone,  which  has  been  dug  up  from  the 
public  square  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  showed  the  move- 
ments of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  divided  the  year  into 
months  and  seasons. 

Tliou"h  not  so  tall,  tin-  base  of  the  Pyramid  at  Cliolula  covers  four  tiiiies 


the  space  of  the  grand  Egyptian  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  which  occupies  11  acres 
of  ground. 

2.  Soil  and  Productions. — Under  that  fine  cli- 
mate, the  rich  soil  of  Mexico  was,  when  Cortez  first 
went  there,  in  a  high  state  of  improvement.  The  chief 
agricultural  staples  were  the  banana,  Indian  corn,  and 
the  vanilla  bean,  with  the  celebrated  cocoa,  and  the 
lordly  maguey  or  pulque  (pool'kd)  plant,  now  called  the 
Mexican  aloe. 

From  tlie  cocoa  we  get  chocolate,  a  beverage  borrowed  by  Europe,  and 
called  to  this  day  by  the  name  chocolall,  vvliich  the  Mexicans  gave  it. 

The  maguey  is  peculiar  to  Mexico.  Its  leaves  served  the  natives  for  a 
natural  parchment,  upon  which  the  national  records  were  preserved.  Its 
juice,  when  sutiered  to  ferment,  becomes  "  pulque,"  the  national  beverage  of 
the  Mexicans.     It  is  like  cider,  and  when  sullieiently  "  hard"  is  intoxicating. 

The  plant  is  beautiful.  Its  leaves,  six  or  eight  fieet  long,  supi)ly  the 
natives  with  weather-boarding  and  shingles  for  their  hinnble  dwellings ; 
its  thorns  supjily  them  with  nails,  jtins,  and  needles;  its  fibre,  with  strings 
audc'ords;  and  its  juice  with  sugar  as  well  as  pulque.  Nor  is  this  all.  In 
some  parts  its  leaves  are  used  in  iee  eiillmitioii.  The  iei;  gardens  are  covered 
with  the  leaves,  which  in  the  evening  are  filled  with  water,  like  so  many  little 
troughs,  each  holding  about  a  quart.  They  are  porous  ;  also  powerful  radia 
tors.  The  radiation  from  them  and  the  evaporation  of  the  exuded  water, 
bring  down  the  temperature  at  night  to  freezing,  and  in  tlie  morning  the  ice- 
crop  is  ready  for  market. 

S.  CoHt/Hcsf  of  Mcjico. — In  1519,  Cortez  invaded 
the  domains  of  Montezuma,  and  on  his  death,  he  took 
possession  of  his  kingdom  in  the  name  of  the  King  of 
Spiiin. 

Thus  Mexico  became  a  f)ossession  of  Spain.  The 
Spaniards  are  still  the  dominant  race  there,  and  their 
language  is  the  language  of  the  country,  and  their  le- 
ligion  is  its  religion.  They  are  Roman  Catholics,  as  are 
all  the  nations  in  North  Aiuciica  except  the  United 
States  and  the  British  colonies. 

In  1813  Mexico  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  declared  herself  inde- 
pendent. 

4.  Chief  Staples.— Sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  hemp,  to- 
bacco, cocoa,  chochineal,  pimento,  indigo,  wheat,  corn, 
grapes,  and  olives  all  find  genial  climates  in  this  mag- 
nificent country,  and,  when  well  cultivated,  the  yield 
is  enormous. 

On  the  plains  of  Mexico  violets  are  in  bloom,  straw- 
berries are  ripe,  and  green  peas  in  season  all  the  year. 

In  the  orchards  and  garden.^  are  gathered  the  most 
delicious  fruits.  The  forests  abound  in  ornamental  woods 
and  dye-stufis,  and  the  groves  with  gums  and  spices, 
drugs  and  medicines  of  much  value.  Among  them  may 
be  enumerated  the  india-rubber  tree,  the  vanilla  bean, 
licorice,  sarsaparilla,  and  jalap — so  called  from  the  city 
of  Jalapa  {/la-lah'pah),  where  it  grows  wild. 

In  Yucatan  there  is  made  from  a  variety  of  the 
celebrated  Maguev,  called  heiiopiii,  a  superior  kind  of 


MEXICO. 


85 


hemp,  known  in  commerce  as  Sisal  {si-sal)  hemp,  from 
the  place  of  export. 

In  the  Tierra  Caliente  of  the  Gulf  coast,  and  in  the 
folds  of  the  mountains  to  the  south  of  Tampico  and 
Vera  Cruz,  the  new  textile  called  Ramie  grows  finely. 
The  Mexicans  call  it  Pochote  (po-cho'-id).  It  is  very 
white,  with  a  long,  lustrous,  and  silky  fibre. 

o.  Climate  of  Tiet'ra  Caliente. — By  looking  at  the 
map  of  Central  America  you  will  see  that  in  Mexico 
there  is  a  range  of  mountuins  on  both  sides  of  the 
country,  which  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  belt  of 
low-lands,  varying  in  breadth  from  a  few  miles  to  a 
hundred  or  more. 

This  low-land  belt  is  the  tierra  caliente,  or  hot  coun- 
try, rank  in  vegetation,  and  rife  with  the  pestilence. 
Its  diseases  are  terrible  ;  the  yellow  fever  is  the  most 
common  and  fatal  among  them. 

In  tliis  belt  is  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz,  whose  citizens,  during  the  sickly 
season,  often  resort  to  Jalapa,  which  is  near  but  on  high  and  healthy  ground. 


a.  The  Table-Land.— A?,cQmVmfr,  this  coast-range  of 
ujountains,  j-ou  reach,  at  the  height  of  from  5,000  to 
8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  table-lands 
already  described.  They  extend  entirely  across  the 
countrv  from  coast-range  to  coast-ransre. 

This  table-land  is  nothing  more  than  a  broad  mountain  top,  which  you 
climb  as  you  go  west  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  upon  wliich  you  travel  many 
miles,  and  then  descending,  find  yourself  again  in  Tierra  Caliente,  upon  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

This  broad  mountain-top,  or  table-land,  is  the  Tierra 
Ternplada,  or  the  temperate  land  of  Mexico.     The  cli- 


mate is  delightful.   It  is  never  cold  enough  to  pinch  with 
frost,  nor  hot  enough  to  oppress  with  heat. 

The  city  of  Mexico  is  situated  upon  this  table-land,  at  the  height  of  7,500 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  houses  there  are  built  without  chimneys,  as  the  win- 
ters are  not  cold  enough  to  make  fires  necessary. 

The  descent  from  the  table-land  to  the  low-land  is  very  precipitous  on  all 
sides,  but  especially  on  the  east,  where,  if  seen  from  a  distance,  it  appears  like 
a  range  of  mountains.  Tliere  are  only  two  carriage-roads  to  it  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  by  passes  500  miles  asunder:  one  at  Jalapa,  near  Vera  Cruz, 
and  the  other  at  Saltillo,  west  of  Monterey.  The  table-lands  extend  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

7.  Mountains. — Its  top  is  not  a  smooth  or  level  surface,  as  might  be 
supposed  from  the  word  "  table-land,"  but  it  is  diversified  with  hill  and  dale, 
mountain  and  valley,  like  other  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  has  other 
mountain  ranges  on  the  top,  some  of  them  shooting  up  peaks,  as  Orizaba  and 
Popocatapetl,  to  the  height  of  17,800  feet  above  the  sea,  and  far  enough  up  to 
reach  the  regions  of  perpetual  ice.  Both  cf  these  are  slumbering  volcanoes, 
though  they  are  capped  with  snow. 

Orizaba  is  in  sight  from  the  sea,  and  Popocatapetl 
from  the  city  of  Mexico. 

The  latter  is  a  solfatara,  down  into  the  caverns  of  which  Cortez,  during  his 
conquest  of  the  country,  sent  one  of  his  followers  to  gather  sulphur  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder. 

When  a  volcano  ceases  to  emit  flames,  and  is  in  the  process  of  extinction, 
it  sends  out  fumes  and  gases  which  deposit  sulphur  in  large 
quantities ;  it  then  becomes  a  solfatara. 

The  solfataras  of  Italy  and  the  Mediterranean  supply 
commerce  with  most  of  the  sulphur  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder. 

8.  Tlie  Seasons.— In  Mexico,  as  in  all 
the  inter-tropical  countries  in  the  world, 
the  seasons  are  marked  by  the  rains.  These 
commence  in  Jupc,  and  last  till  November. 

In  Tierra  Templada  the  rainy  season  is  the  most  delight- 
ful, but  in  Tierra  Caliente  it  is  the  sickly  season. 

9.  Mines.— This  table-land  in  Mexico, 
as  it  is  in  the  United  States,  is  rich  in  mines 
of  gold  and  silver,  copper,  lead,  tin,  quick- 
silver, zinc,  and  iron.  Indeed,  from  Pata- 
gonia, all  the  way  up  into  British  Colum- 
bia, and  in  Alaska  too,  as  far  as  miners  have 
explored,  minerals  abound,  and  the  riches.t 
mines  in  the  world  of  their  kind  have  been 
found  in  this  range.  It  is  the  metalliferous 
treasury  of  the  earth. 

Silver  is  the  chief  article  of  export  from  Mexico. 
Sonora,  Chihuahua  {che-ioah'v)ah),  and  Guerrero  {ger- 
rd'ro),  are  the  provinces  richest  in  minerals. 

10.  Important  Cities. — Vera  Cruz  and  Tampico 
{tam-pee'ko)  arc  the  chief  seaports  on  the  Gulf  coast ; 
Guaymas  (c/wi'mas),  Mazatlan,  San  Bias,  Acapulco, 
on  the  Pacific. 

The  city  of  Mexico  is  encircled  by  a  range  of  mountains,  from  which  rise 
two  snow-clad  peaks — viz.,  Popocatapetl,  17,800  feet  high,  and  Iztaccihuatl 
(eeH-ldhk-se-hwaVl'),  or  the  woiium  in  white.     These  two  giant  sentinels  stand 


86 


THE    STATES    OF    CENTRAL    AMERICA. 


side  by  side,  lending  glory  to  the  landscape,  while  they  impress  and  charm 
the  beholder. 


its  boundaries  on  all*sides? — What  Gulf  indents  its  western  coast? — What 
peninsula  between  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  V 

How  far  is  it  from  Yucatan  to  Cuba? — From  Yucatan  to 
Matamoras? — From  Yucatan  to  New  Orleans? 

Where  is  Tiburon  Id.? — Cape  San  Lucas  ?— Cape  Corri- 
entes? — Cape  Roxo? — Cape  Catoche? — Where  is  the  Bay  of 
Campeche? — Where  is  the  Gulf  of  California? — Of  Mexico? — 
Where  is  the  Gulf  of  Tehuantepec  ? 

Where  is  the  table-land  of  Mexico?— What  mountains  run 
through  Mexico  ? — Name  some  of  the  volcanoes  of  Mexico. — 
What  river  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  Mexico  ? — Name  the 
other  chief  rivers  of  Mexico. — Where  is  the  City  of  Mexico? 
— Wlicrc  is  San  LuisPotosi? — Monterey? — Presidio  del  Norte? 
— Guanaxuato  (gicah-nah-wah' to)  ? — Merida  ? — Chihuahua  ? 

How  fixr  is  it  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Galveston, 
Texas?— To  Vera  Cruz?— To  Tehuantepec ?— How  far  from 
the  City  of  Mexico  to  San  Francisco  V — Point  out  in  Mexico 
the  Tierra  Caliente. — AVhich  are  the  best  mining  regions  of 
Mexico  ? 


CITY    OP    MEXICO. 

In  the  climes  of  perpetual  summer,  tlie  sight  of  snow-clad  mountains  is 
'idescribably  grateful.  As  objects  of  contemplation  they  are  as  pleasing  as 
running  water,  and  as  suggestive  as  the  sea. 

About  two  miles  from  the  city  of  Mexico  is  Lake  Tezcuco,  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  city  by  a  canal,  and  is  the  largest  and  lowest  of  five  lakes  in 
the  v-cinity.    It  is  salt ;  the  others  are  fresh. 

11.  Fojmlation.—  Tho  population  of  Mexico,  by 
tbo  official  returns  of  1869-70,  was  9.170.000. 

Questions. — 1.  Where,  at  the  time  of  the  discover}^  of  America,  was  the 
mightiest  empire  in  the  New  World  ? — Who  was  its  ruler  ? — Where  was  its 
capital  •' — Describe  it. — Of  what  public  establisliments  did  the  capitals  of 
Europe  borrow  the  idea  from  Mexico? — What  facts  can  j-ou  mention  as 
showing  the  degree  of  civilization  that  existed  among  the  Mexicans? — Wliat 
was  their  calendar-stone?  2.  What  was  the  agricultural  state  of  their  coun- 
try?— What  their  staple  productions? — What  bever.nge  do  we  get  from  the 
cocoa? — Whence  the  name? — What  plant  thrives  in  no  other  part  of  the 
world  except  in  Mexico  ? — What  is  pulque  ? — What  use  is  made  of  the  pulque 
plant  and  its  various  parts?  3.  When  did  Cortcz  invade  Mexico? — Who 
was  the  reigning  monarch  there? — What  became  of  him  ? — AVhat  is  the  lan- 
guage of  Mexico  ? — What,  the  religion  ? 

4.  Name  the  chief  staples  to  which  the  climate  and  soil  of  Mexico  are 
congenial. — What  fruits  and  flowers  do  you  find  in  season  all  the  yer.r  on 
the  plains  of  Mexico  ? — Name  some  of  the  most  valuable  drugs  and  medicinal 
plants  which  are  indigenous  to  Mexico. — From  what  does  the  medicine  called 
jalap  derive  its  name? — What  is  henepin? — Where  is  it  grown? — What  does 
it  produce  ? — What  is  the  pochote  of  Mexico  ? 

5.  Howls  the  table-land  of  Mexico  separated  from  the  sea? — Where  is 
Tierra  Caliente  ?  G.  How  high  is  the  table-land  of  IS[exico  ? — How  broad  is 
it  ? — Where  is  Tierra  Templada  ? — Contrast  the  climate  of  Tierra  Caliente  with 
that  of  Tierra  Templada.— On  which  "  Tierra"  is  the  City  of  Mexico  ? — How 
many  carriage-roads  on  the  east  of  the  table-land  ? — Where  are  they  ? — How 
far  does  this  table-land  extend  ?  7.  Is  the  top  of  it  a  level  country  ? — What  vol- 
canoes have  you  upon  it  ? — What  is  a  solfatera  ? — Where  are  the  great  sources 
which  supply  sulphur  for  gunpowder  ?  8.  How  are  the  seasons  divided  in 
Mexico  ? — When  does  the  rainy  season  commence? — How  long  does  it  last? 
— Which  is  the  sickly  season  in  TieiTa  Caliente  ?  9.  Where  is  the  metal- 
liferous treasury  of  the  earth  ? — What  is  the  chief  article  of  export  from  Mex- 
ico ? — Name  some  of  the  principal  cities  in  Mexico.  10.  What  are  the  chief 
seaport  towns  on  the  Pacific  coast  ? — Which  is  the  largest  city  in  Mexico  ? — 
Name  some  of  the  principal  towns?    11.  Population  of  Mexico? 

Map  Studies.  (Refer  to  Map  of  Mexico,  p.  89.) — Within  what  pa- 
rallels of  latitude  is  Mexico  included  ? — Within  what  meridians  ? — What  are 


LESSO.y  XLY. 

The  States  of  Central  America 

The  States  of  Central  America  all  belonged  once  to 
^^pain.  Spanish  is  the  language  spoken,  and  the  domi- 
nant race  is  of  Spanish  blood.  Their  religion  is  the 
Roman  Catholic. 

These  States,  with  Mexico,  occupy  the  central  portion 
of  our  continent ;  they  lie  between  the  United  States  of 
Columbia,  in  South  America,  and  th(>  United  States  of 
America,  in  North  America. 

They  derive  their  importance,  not  so  much  from  the 
value  of  the  commerce  we  have  witli  them,  as  from 
their  vast  natural  resources  and  from  their  geograi)h- 
ical  position  ;  for  across  their  borders  lie  the  shortest 
routes  that  can  be  constructed,  cither  by  rail  or  water, 
between  the  two  oceans. 

It  was  here  that  Columbus  placed  the  Gates  of  Ocean  which  he  longed  to 
unbar. 

Central  America  is  situated  in  a  belt  of  volcanic  fires  that  girdles  tlie 
Pacific  Ocean.  Izalco,  a  burning  mountain,  in  San  Salvador,  was  formed  in 
1770,  and  has  been  active  ever  since.  Coseguina  is  noted  for  its  eruption  in 
1885,  when  tlie  air  was  so  darkened  by  its  ashes,  even  at  places  TjO  miles  dis- 
tant, that  friends  could  not  recognize  each  other,  and  the  fowls  went  to  roost. 

These  States  consist  of  five  Republics  and  the  Bali/.e, 
a  British  Province.  The  Republics,  exclusive  of  Mexico, 
are  Guatemala  {guah-te-mah'-Iah),  Honduras,  San  Salva- 
dor, Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica  {ree'Icah).  These  are 
all  small  States  both  as  to  area  and  population. 

The  smallest  of  them  in  population  (Costa  Rica)  has 
not  as  many  inhabitants  as  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and 
the  largest  of  them  in  area  (Nicaragua)  is  smaller  than 
the  single  State  of  Georgia,  with  only  a  little  more,  in- 
cluding Indians  and  all,  than  one-third  its  population. 


THE    WEST    INDIES. 


87 


Guatemala 40,777 

San  Salvador 7,334 

Hnnduras 47,091 

Nicaragua 58,1G7 

Costa  Rica 21,494 


Area.  Population. 

sciuare  miles 1,180,000 

"     600,000 

"     350.000 

"     400,000 

"     135.000 


Total,  5  Republics  . . .  .174,863 

Balize  (British) 17,008 

Central  America 191,871 


.2.065.000 


.      25.635 
.2.093,635 


These  five  Central  American  Eepublics,  all  taken  to- 
gether, are  not  so  large  as  the  State  of  California,  nor  as 
populous,  in  the  aggregate,  as  the  single  State  of  New 
York. 

Their  mountains  are  filled  with  useful  minerals,  and 
richly  stored  with  the  precious  metals.  Their  climate, 
like  that  of  Mexico,  is  superb  ;  their  soil  is  generous,  and 
their  harvest-time  lasts  the  live-long  year.  Yet  these 
countries  are  not  prosperous. 

The  soil  and  climates  of  Central  America  are  admi- 
rably adapted  to  the  production  of  tea  and  coffee,  cocoa 
and  sugar,  cochineal  and  indigo,  colton  and  corn,  hemp 
and  flax,  tobacco  and  vanilla.     Cochineal  is  an  insect. 

Tlic  forests,  like  those  of  Tierra  Caliente,  in  Mexico, 
abound  in  ornamental  woods,  dye-stuffs,  gums,  spices, 
drugs,  and  medicines. 

Mahogany  of  fine  quality  comes  from  the  forests  of 
Central  America. 

Cattle  of  all  sorts  thrive  well. 

Numerous  mines  of  silver  and  gold  in  the  hill-country, 
lie  there  ready  to  be  wrought  with  profit  whenever 
|)i()per  energy  and  skill  are  brought  to  the  work  of 
development. 

These  States  export  a  few  hides  and  a  little  cochineal ; 
some  coffee  and  cocoa,  but  no  tea  or  sugar,  cotton,  rice, 
or  hemp. 

The  largest  city  in  them  all  is  New  Guatemala,  with 
an  estimated  population  of  40,000  souls. 

The  geogra[)liical  position  of  Central  America  is  both  instructive  and 
important. 

Turn  to  Mcrcator'a  Map  of  the  World  and  study  this  country. 

You  obsci-ve  it  connect.?  North  and  South  America,  and  separates,  by  a 
narrow  strip  of  land,  the  waters  of  tlie  Pacific  from  tlie  waters  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

A  ship-canal  across  the  istlmuis  would  do  away  the  necessity  of  vessels 
eiiira^'cd  in  tiie  coasting-trade  of  th(;  United  States  between  the  two  oceans, 
:ind  save  tiiem  more  than  10,000  miles  in  the  distance  to  be  sailed. 

Oltserve  on  the  map  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  Nicaragua;  they  seem  to  offer 
■'  I  ivorable  route  for  a  ship-canal,  (p.  89.) 

A  railway  has  l)een  established  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Punama,  and  it  is  used  as  a  thoroughfare  for  passengers 
and  emigrants  going  to  Califoi-nia  and  China. 

Quf'stionfs. — From  what  do  the  Central  American  States  derive  their 
iiiil)ortance?— Name  tiiem.— To  whom  does  the  Balize  belong? — Which  of 


these  Republics  is  the  smallest  in  population? — Which  the  largest? — How 
large  is  it? — Mention  some  of  their  natural  resources. — Are  these  countries 
prosperous? — Name  some  of  the  productions  for  which  these  countries  are 
adapted. — What  do  their  forests  yield  ? — What  do  the  people  there  export? — 
What  is  the  population  of  the  largest  city  ? — In  which  of  the  Republics  is  it  ? 
— Describe  the  importance  of  their  geographical  position. — How  much  would 
a  ship-canal  across  here,  for  vessels  in  the  coasting-trade  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States,  save?— Where  does  the  most  favor- 
able route  for  a  ship-canal  appear  to  be  ? — What  makes  it  so  ? — What  improve- 
ment has  been  completed? 


LESSOJV  XLVI. 

The  West  Indies. 

These  islands  are  like  stepping-stones  across  the  ocean 
from  Florida  to  the  Orinoco;  they  are  in  sight  from  one 
to  another,  almost  all  the  way. 

They  embay  the  shores  of  Central  America,  and  form 
the  dividing  line  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Grulf 
of  Mexico  on  one  hand,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the 
other.  They  keep  out  the  tidal-wave,  and  make  both 
that  gulf  and  sea  all  but  tideless. 

None  of  these  islands,  except  Hayti,  are  independent. 
Those  near  the  coasts  belong  to  the  neighboring  Repub- 
lics; but  all  the  West  Indies  proper,  that  is,  all  the 
islands  in  the  group  that  lie  between  Florida  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  or  south  of  the  Bahamas,  belong 
to  some  European  power,  and  are  ruled  by  governors 
sent  out  for  the  purpose. 

Cuba  is  the  largest  of  them  all,  and  belongs,  with  Porto  Rico,  to  Spain.  They 
are  governed  by  the  Captain-General  of  Cuba.  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe 
belong  to  France;  St.  Thomas,  the  islandof  San  Juan,  and  Santa  Cruz  to  Den- 
mark ;  Curacoa  (cu-ra-so)  and  St.  Eustatia  to  the  Dutch,  St.  Bartholomew  to 
Sweden,  and  the  whole  of  the  Bahamas,  with  Jamaica  and  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  lesser  Antilles,  to  Great  Britain. 

The  West  India  Islands,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Bahamas,  are  all  intertropical.  They  will  produce  almost 
anything  that  the  inhabitants  choose  to  cultivate,  but 
their  chief  staples  for  export  are  coffee,  sugar,  and  to- 
bacco, with  summer  fruits  and  garden  vegetables  for  the 
markets  of  our  northern  cities. 

They  have  other  industries  and  other  sources  of  wealth  besides  those  which 
spring  from  the  soil.  The  sea  and  the  mines,  and  their  cigar  foctories,  are 
very  profitable. 

Cuba. 

Cuba  is  called  the  Queen  of  the  Antilles.  It  is  720 
miles  long  and  averages  CO  miles  in  width.  In  extent 
it  embraces  half  the  area  included  within  all  the  islands  ; 
it  is  in  size  equal  to  Tennessee. 

Havana,  with  a  population  of  150,000,  is  the  chief 
seaport. 


88 


MAYTI. —JAMAICA.— THE    BAHAMAS.— TURK'S    ISLAND.— ST.    THOMAS.— BARBADOES. 


A  tTUEET  SCENE  IN  HAVANA. 


It  is  the  largest  and  most  wealtliy  city  in  tlie  West  Indies,  and  has  one  of 
the  finest  liarbors  in  the  world.  The  entrance  to  it  is  narrow,  and  is  guarded 
by  the  celebrated  Moro  Castle. 

The  cathedral  in  Havana  contains  the  remains  of  Christopher  Columbus. 

Hayti 

Once  belonged  to  France  and  Spain.  The  island  is  now 
inhabited  chiefly  by  negroes  and  mulattoes,  and  is 
divided  into  the  Republics  of  Hayti  and  San  Domingo. 

The  town  of  San  Domingo  is  the  oldest  of  the  cities  founded  by  Europeans 
in  the  New  World.  It  was  established  in  1504,  and  contains  13,000  inhabitants. 
This  island,  like  Central  America,  is  unsurpassed  in  its  agricultural  re- 
sources, and  is  rich  in  minerals. 

The  exports  of  Hayti  consist  of  mahogany  and  other  woods  in  the  rough, 
a  little  cotton,  and  some  coffee. 

Jamaica 

Is  the  third  island  in  size,  and  belongs  to  England.  Its 
exports  are  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  coifee,  tobacco,  cocoa, 
allspice,  and  indigo. 

The  Bahama  Isl.-^ds  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Nassau,  the  capital,  is 
the  chief  town. 

The  coral  rocks  and  reefs  which  skirt  these  islands  on  the  west  are  dan- 
gerous to  navigation.  Sponges,  sea-shells,  and  corals  are  also  collected  in 
considerable  quantities,  and  sent  to  New  York  and  <nher  places  for  sale. 

Turk's  Island  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  salt  by 
solar  evaporation. 

St.  Thomas  derives  its  importance  from  its  fine  har- 


bor. It  is  a  free  port, 
where  vessels  pay  no 
duties. 

In  consequence  of  this  the 
West  India  mail-steamers  ol' 
England  and  France  have  mack^ 
it  their  place  of  rendezvous, 
where  they  meet  the  smaller 
steamers  and  exchange  cargoes 
and  passengers. 

BARBADOEsis  the  cen- 
tre of  another  English 
colonial  government. 

The  colored  men  of  Barba- 
does  {J)(tv-ha  dCe)  make  excellent 
sailors. 

Trinidad  almost 
joins  South  Ameri(;i. 
It  is  the  largest  ishind 
in  this  part  of  the  grouj), 
and  ])roduces  sugar, 
rum,  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
ginger. 

It  is  celebrated  for  a  lake  of 
pilch,  from  which  immense 
quantities  are  annually  taken  and 
canied  abroad,  and  yet  there  is 
no  perceptible  diminution  of  It. 
It  rises  up  from  the  earth  as  fast  as  it  is  taken  away.  The  streets  and  side- 
walks of  Paris  are  paved  with  it. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies  arc  generally  of  a 
dark  color.  They  are  either  brDwn,  lilce  the  Moor;  red, 
like  the  Indian  ;  black,  like  the  Negro ;  or  yellow,  like 
the  mixed  l)reeds. 

Spanish  is  the  language  most  generally  spoken  in  all 
parts  of  America  south  of  the  United  States. 

The  area  of  the  whole  group  taken  togetlier  is  about 
twice  that  of  Mississippi,  and  its  population  more  tiiaii 
four  times  as  great. 

There  are  various  clusters  of  small  islands.     Ciiief  among  these  are  I  lie 
Bahamas,  pop.  40,000.     Of  the  smaller  islands,  the  most  populous  are  Bar- 
badoes  l.j;j,000,  Trinidad  80,000,  Granada  ;J7,000.     The  islands  owned  by- 
Spain,  embrace,  square  miles 4!),4T7.     P(.|>ul.uion 1,080,000 

England   "  "       \nmy 

Hayti  "  "  2^-0- 

France  "  "  1.0b"). 

Holland  "  "  ■'>^'~>- 

Denmark  "  "  120. 

Sweden  "  "  l-^- 

Note. — The  population  of  San  Domingo 

Questions. — Between  what  places,  on  the  shores  of  North  and  South 
America,  do  the  West  India  Islands  lie?— Between  what  sheet.s  of  watei-  do 
they  form  the  dividing  line  ?— Wliich  of  these;  i.slands  are  independent  V— To 
whom  did  they  belong? — Which  is  the  largest  of  them  ? — Point  out  those  that 
belong  to  Spain — To  France — To  Denmark — To  Holland — To  Sweden — 
To  England.— Compare  Cuba  with  Tennessee. — Tell  its  population. — Wliich 
is  the  largest  city  in  the  West  Indies  ? — For  what  is  it  noted  ? — Name  some  of 


O:jr),000 

710,000 

275,000 

32,000 

38,000 

3,000 

a  prirtion  of  Hayti,  is  l;j(i,.')00. 


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MAP    STUDIES  :    MEXICO,    CENTRAL    AMERICA,    AND    WEST    INDIES 


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SOUTH    AMERICA. 


A  N  I  M  A  I.     AND      VEGETABLE      L  1  J'  E      c  J  E      >(  I  I '  T  II      A  M   E  li  I  <^  A  . 


LESSOJ^   XLVIII. 

South  America.     (Map,  p.  102.) 

1.  Shajye  and  Bxtent. — South  America  is  triarifjn- 
lar  in  shape  and  lies  partly  in  botli  hemispheres,  but  by 
far  the  largest  part  of  it  is  included  within  the  tropics 
and  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

The  narrowest  part  ot  North  America  and  tue  broadest 
part  of  South  America  lie  between  the  tropics. 

As  you  recede  from  the  Troi)ic  of  Cancer  toward  the 
North  Pole,  our  continent  gets  broader  and  broader  ;  as 
you  recede  from  the  southern  tropic  toward  the  South 
Pole,  South  America  gets  narrower  and  narrower. 

The  area  of  South  America  is  0,961,864  square  miles, 
and  the  area  of  North  America  is  8,851,728  square 
miles. 

2.  Comparative  Geof/i'aj^Jiy.—The  great  river  of 
North  America  runs  from  North  to  South  ;  the  great 
river  of  South  America  runs  from  west  to  east 

The  Mississippi  is  extra-tropical.  "With  every  degree 
of  latitude  in  its  course  from  north  to  south,  it  changes 
its  climate;  and  with  climate,  production  and  industry 
vary. 

The  Amazon  is  inter-tropical.  It  runs  from  west  to 
east.  It  marks  no  change  of  climate,  and  the  variety  of 
production  and  industry  along  its  banks  is  such  only  as 


is  due  to  the   change  of  height  above  the  sea,   as  it 
flows  eastwardly  from  the  mountains  to  the  ocean. 

Consequently,  these  two  rivei-s  already  present  conditions  for  striking  con- 
trasts in  their  geographical  relations  and  commercial  aspects. 

The  lessons  of  our  science  teach  us  to  expect  that  when  tliese  two,  the  most 
magnificent  river-basins  in  the  world,  shall  be  occupied,  eacJi  according  to  its 
cai)acity,  the  Mississippi  will  excel  in  way-business — the  Ai'jazon  in  throurjh- 
commeree. 

3.  Mountains  and  Rivers. — The  Andes  skirt  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  all  the  way  from  Patagonia  to 
Panama,  and  give  to  the  Atlantic  slopes  of  South  America 
a  breadth  of  area  that  comprises  15-16ths  of  the  whole 
country. 

Consequently,  all  the  great  rivers  of  South  America  are  diained  toward 
the  east  and  empty  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  waters  tiiat  are  diaiiicil 
off  into  the  Pacific  are  only  mountain-streams  that  are  fed  by  the  meliinj; 
snows  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Andes.    (See  p.  96.) 

4.  Early  Civilization. — What  Montezuma  and  the 
Aztecs  were  to  Mexico,  the  Indians,  under  Atahuali)a. 
were  to  Peru. 

What  Cortez  did  to  the  former,  Pizarro  did  to  the 
latter.  He  claimed  the  whole  of  South  America,  as 
Cortez  did  of  North  America,  for  their  master,  the  King 
of  Spain. 

The  Peruvians  had  beasts  of  burden,  as  the  llama;  the  Aztecs  had  none, 
nor  any  other  domestic  animal.  The  Peruvians  had  i>ublic  highways  and  paved 
roads.  The  remains  of  the  great  road  from  Quito  to  Cuzco,  and  thence  along 
the  plateau  of  the  Andes  to  Chili,  like  tlie  Appiaii  Way  to  Ilome,  arc  still  to 
be  seen.  This  road  was  cimstructed,  for  nearly  1000  miles,  over  paililess 
heights  buried  in  snow ;  galleries  were  cut  for  leagues  through  the  living  rock  ; 


EQUATORIAL    SOUTH    AMERICA  :    THE    UNITED    STATES   .OF    COLOMBIA.— VENEZUELA.      91 


ravines  were  crossed  by  suspension  bridges ;  precipices  were  scaled  by  means 
of  stairways  hewn  in  their  steep  sides  ;  stone  pillars  were  set  up  as  mile-stones 
by  the  wayside  to  mark  the  distance.  The  breadth  of  this  magnificent  road 
was  20  feet ;  it  was  paved  with  heavy  flags,  and  covered  in  some  parts  with 
bituminous  cement. 

The  Peruvians  had  also  temples,  fortresses,  terraced 
gardens,  and  aqueducts  ;  superb  palaces  and  splendid 
cities. 

In  Cuzco  was  their  great  temple  of  the  sun,  the  most  magnificent  struc- 
ture in  the  New  World,  and  in  its  day  far  sui'passing,  for  the  costliness  of 
decoration,  any  edifice  in  Europe.  For  the  royal  baths  the  water  was  con- 
ducted into  bisins  of  gold  through  subterranean  channels  of  silver. 

Cuzco,  like  the  city  of  Mexico,  on  a  table-land,  is  overlooked  by  snow-clad 
mountains,  and  stands  11,800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

o.  TJie  Three  Great  Inland  Basin S' — It  is  worthy 
of  the  geographer's  notice  that  there  are  but  three  great 
inland  basins  in  the  New  World:  that  of  Cuzco,  with  Lake 
Titicaca  ;  that  of  Mexico,  with  Lake  Tezcuco  ;  and  the 
Lii-eat  inland  basin  of  North  America,  which  includes 
L'tah,  New  Mexico,  and  Nevada,  with  the  great  Salt 
Lake.  Of  all  parts  of  the  continent,  these  inland  basins 
most  abound  in  the  ruins  of  empires  and  in  the  memorials 
of  ancient  civilizations. 

6*.  I*hfjsical  Geof/rajjJit/  of  Intertropical  America. 
— The  physical  geography  of  all  of  intertropical  America 
is  alike. 

Witliin  this  region  soil  and  climate  are  found  that  are  adapted  to  all  the 
great  agricultural  staples  of  the  world.  Cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  cocoa,  coffee, 
tea;  the  poppy,  the  banana,  and  potato  ;  hemp  of  several  kinds,  flax,  cochineal, 
indigo,  wheat,  rice,  corn,  incense,  gums,  spices,  perfumes,  drugs,  medicines, 
dye-stuiTs,  and  ornamental  woods;  with  boundless  pastures  for  herds  and 
cattle  of  all  sorts ;  all  these  abound  in  this  favored  country  as  they  do  no- 
where else.     Cochineal  is  a  dye  ;  the  insect  feeds  on  cactus  plants. 

Therefore,  in  telling  of  the  agricultural  i)roductions  of 
one  of  these  intertropical  States,  we  describe  the  agricul- 
tural resources  of  them  all. 

Quest  ions. — 1,  What  is  the  area  of  the  two  Americas? — Of  their  Islands? 
— Compare  North  and  South  America. — Show  their  points  of  reseniblanc(!  and 
contrast.  2.  Compare  the  largest  rivers.— Describe  the  influence  which 
the  course  oi  a  river  has  upon  its  commerce. — Why  should  you  expect  the 
river  traffic  on  the  Mi.ssissijjpi  always  to  surpass  that  of  the  Amazon? 
.'{.  On  wliicli  side  of  Uie  Andes  are  its  largest  rivers? — Into  what  ocean  do 
fliey  flow  ?  4.  How  did  the  Peruvians  compare  in  civilization  with  the 
Aztr-cs  of  Mexico?— Had  tlie  aborigines  of  America  any  beasts  of  burden? 
— Who  was  the  ruling  Inca  when  Pizarro  invaded  Peru  ? 

.5.  Describe  tlie  three  American  Inland  Basins,  and  tell  for  what  they 
lie  remarkable.  (I.  What  is  said  of  the  physical  geography  of  intertropical 
America  ?— What  are  the  productions  of  the  soil  ? 


LESSOJV   XLIX. 

Equatorial  South  America.     (Map,  p.  102.) 
The  United  States  of  Colombia. 

These  States  have  a  population  of  2,900,000,  and  an 
area  of  357,000  square  miles.  They  are,  in  size,  equal 
to  Texas  and  New  Mexico  combined. 


The  United  States  of  Colombia,  like  British  America 
and  the  United  States,  extend  from  sea  to  sea,  ind  em- 
brace Panama,  with  its  railway,  which  is  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  revenue  to  the  State,  and  which,  by  treaty 
with  the  United  States,  is  bound  to  be  neutral  in  war. 

The  farmers  there  grow  corn,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
tobacco  ;  but  they  produce  not  much  more  of  these  than 
is  required  for  the  scanty  home  consumption. 

C;ii'tagena  {car-ta-jeena)  was  once  a  great  commercial 
mart  of  Spain. 

A  few  miles  back  from  it,  in  the  interior,  is  a  group  of  those  curious  phe- 
nomena, the  air  volcanoes.  They  are  truncated  cones,  about  25  feet  high, 
filled  with  water.  The  plain  on  whieh  they  stand  is  about  10,000  feet  above 
the  sea. 

This  city  is  the  principal  seaport  of  the  Colombian 
States.  In  the  colonial  times  it  was  a  place  of  consider- 
able importance,  but  now  its  tenantless  houses  and  deso- 
late streets  show  that  not  much  business  is  done  on  its 
wharves. 

From  Panama  we  get  straw  hats  and  grass  hammocks, 
and  these,  with  a  little  chocolate,  are  the  chief  manu- 
factures that  come  from  these  States. 

There  are  no  manufacturing  establishments  of  consequence  in  any  part 
of  intertroi)ical  South  America,  except  in  the  fiistmjsses  of  the  mountains, 
where  transportation  of  merchandise  from  the  sea  becomes  very  costly. 

Bogota,  with  a  population  of  45,000,  the  capital  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  is  situated  8,700  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  It  has  two  rainy  seasons  annually,  so  its 
climate  all  the  year  round  is  as  charming  and  delightful 
as  the  month  of  May  is  with  us. 

Persons  at  Bogota  have  only  about  three-fourths  as  much  atmosphere 
above  them  as  we  have.  The  diminished  pressure  caused  bj'  this  is  often,  at 
first,  very  distressing  to  strangers.  The  feeling  is  like  that  caused  by  a  short- 
ness of  breath.  Indeed,  owing  to  the  diminished  pressure,  at  great  eleva- 
tions, the  blood  often  gushes  from  the  eyes,  mouth,  and  ears  of  travellers 
who  ascend  the  neighboring  snow-capped  peaks. 

In  these  mountains  are  found  the  two  natural  bridges 
of  the  Icononzo,  which  span  a  foaming  torrent — one  at 
the  distance  of  250,  and  the  other  300  feet  above. 

Silver,  gold,  and  precious  stones  are  found  among  the 
mountains  in  these  States. 

Venezuela. 

Venezuela  is  about  three  times  the  size  of  the  Islands 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ])ut  together.  It  contains 
2  200,000  inhabitants,  including  50,000  Indians,  and  has 
an  area  of  368,220  square  miles. 

The  early  Spanish  explorers,  observing  that  the  natives  had  built  their 
houses  on  piles  along  the  shores,  called  the  country  Venezuela  or  "Little 
Venice." 

It  is  traversed  by  the  Orinoco  river.  It  does  not  extend  as  far  back  as  the 
crest  of  the  Andes,  and  is  therefore  less  mountainous  than  the  United  States 
of  Colombia. 


92 


THE    THREE    GUIANAS.— ECUADOR, 


Venezuela  is  a  prairie  country.  More  than  two-thirds 
of  it,  it  is  computed,  consists  of  llanos  (prairies),  upon 
which  immense  herds  of  cattle  constantly  feed. 

These  llanos  (lyah'rws)  lie  mostly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Orinoco ;  forests 
occupy  the  right  bank,  and  extend  tlience  toward  the  south,  where  they  min- 
gle with  the  selvas  of  the  Amazon. 

A  vast  extent  of  these  plains  is  annually  overflowed.  In  the  rainy  season 
the  low  flat  country  of  the  Orinoco  becomes,  like  the  borders  of  the  lower 
Nile,  a  boundless  sea.  Tliese  waters  teem  with  creepinij  things:  with  alli- 
gators, reptiles,  and  the  curious  fish  known  as  the  electrical  eel.  Horses,  when 
fording  the  pools,  are  sometimes  knocked  down  by  the  latter. 

In  the  dry  season  verdant  plains  become  barren  wastes.  The  cattle 
wander  for  pasture  off  to  the  hills ;  the  ponds  dry  up,  and  the  alligators 
bury  tliemselves  in  the  mud  to  hibernate  till  the  coming  of  tlie  next  rainy 
season,  when  they  may  be  seen  coming  up  like  hideous  spectres  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth. 

The  tides  ascend  the  Orinoco  to  the  distance  of  more 
than  200  miles  ;  above  that,  for  a  considerable  distance, 
it  is  navigable. 

It  was  somewhere  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  that  the  vivid  imagination 
of  the  early  discoverers  placed  the  gilded  king,  El  Dorado,  and  his  golden  city 
of  Manoa. 

The  flora  of  Venezuela  is  wonderfully  rich  and  varied. 
A  species  of  mimosa  grows  wild  there,  which  spreads 
out  its  umbrella-shaped  top  until  it  attains  the  enormous 
l)roportions  of  se¥eral  hundred  feet  in  circumference. 

Tlie  "cow-tree"  is  also  found  in  Venezuela;  the  natives  Uip  it  and  draw 
from  it  a  milk-like  beverage. 

Growing  wild  in  its  forest  and  U|)()n  its  llanos,  there  are  iT}  kinds  of 
medicinal  plants,  3G  that  yield  gunis  and  resins,  and  240  kinds  of  trees  that 
yield  excellent  dye-stuffs  or  atford  fine  timber.  In  addition  to  these,  180 
kinds  of  useful  plants  and  vegetables  are  cultivated  for  food  and  domestic  use. 

The  inhabitants  produce  for  export,  but  in  (luantities 
by  no  means  large,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  indigo ;  and  their  herds  yield  for  the  West  India 
markets  jerked  beef  and  hides. 

Caracas,  the  capital,  with  a  population  of  about 
40,000,  is  a  city  famed  for  its  elegant  hospitality. 

It  stands  on  the  seashore,  3,000  feet  above  the  water,  and  immediately  in 
the  rear  is  the  "Silla"'  (tlw  saddle),  which,  with  it^  two  peaks,  readies  the  lieight 
of  8,600  feet.  They  may  be  seen  many  miles  out  at  sea,  and  are  well  known 
landmarks  to  the  navigator. 

Caracas  was  the  birthplace  of  Bolivar,  sometimes  called  the  Liberator,  the 
Washington  of  South  America.     Varinas  is  noted  for  its  tobacco. 

All  this  part  of  the  countrj',  as  indeed  are  many  other 
parts  of  Spani.sh  America,  is  subject  to  earthquakes. 
Caracas  was  visited  and  well-nigh  destroyed  by  one  in 
1812. 

Maracaybo  is  a  fine  old  town,  with  20,000  inhabitants. 
It  lies  within  the  air-volcano  region  spoken  of  in  a 
former  paragraph. 

Asphaltum  and  petroleum  in  large  quantities  have  been  cast  up,  and  the 
"  Lantern  of  Maracaybo"  is  a  volcano  lit  up  with  petroleum  prepared  in  the 
laboratories  of  nature.    It  serves  as  a  lighthouse. 

Cumana  was  the  most  ancient  city  in  South  America. 


Eng 


It  declined  with  the  industry  of  the  country,  and  in  1853  its  ruin  was  com- 
pleted by  an  earthquake. 

Ciudad  Bolivar  is  situated  on  the  Orinoco,  240  miles 
above  its  mouth,  and  is  an  active  place  of  business. 

It  was  there  that  this  standard-bearer  in  the  Spanish  Revolution  assembled 
the  first  Venezuelan  Congress. 

The  Three  Guyanas. 
These    three  provinces    belong   respectively   to    the 
ish,  French,  and  Dutch.     They  are  the  only  por- 
tions of  South  America  that  remain  in  the  possession  of 
any  European  power. 

Together  they  are  about  the  size  of  California,  with  an  aggiegate  popu- 
lalion  of  246,000 ;  viz.,  Hritisii  Guyana,  103,000 ;  French,  58,000 ;  Dutcli, 
25,000.  Here  the  rainfall  is  greater  than  it  is  in  any  oth(;r  part  of  the  world, 
except  on  the  Khasia  Hills  and  at  Cherrapungee  in  India.  The  Great  Kaie- 
teur  Waterfall  is  on  a  tributaiy  of  the  Essequibo  in  British  Guyana.  It  was 
discovered  in  1870.  It  makes  a  clear  leap  of  822  feet  where  the  river  is  123 
yards  broad  and  15  feel  deep.  The  surrounding  scenery  is  unique  and  pic- 
turesque, nuide  so  by  a  succession  of  long,  flat-topi)ed  mountains  lising 
abrujitly  from  the  plain,  with  precipitous  sides  like  walls  of  masonry.  Of 
lhe.se,  Mt.  Horaima  is  the  most  remarkable.  It  is  18  miles  long  and  7,500 
feet  high.  The  Essequibo,  Orinoco,  and  Amazon,  all  have  tributaries  which 
take  their  rise  on  these  singular  elevations.  They  gather  strength  as  they 
go,  and,  dashing  down  the  mountain-sides,  form  a  succession  of  the  most 
beautiful  cascades  and  waterfalls,  some  of  which  accomplish  a  leap  of  1,500 
feet  at  a  bound. 

The  coast  country  is  low  and  flat.  It  is  a  continuation  of  the  swamp-belt 
which  skirts  the  seaboard  all  tlie  way  from  tlie  Dismal  Swamp  in  Virginia 
through  Mexico  and  Central  and  South  America,  till  you  pass  the  Delta  of 
the  Amazon.  In  all  parts  of  this  belt,  but  especially  here,  the  air  is  filled  with 
insects,  vegetation  is  rank,  and  the  forests  teem  with  wild  dogs,  tiger-cats, 
armadilloes,  deer,  sloth,  ant-eaters,  wild  boars,  raccoons,  opossums,  etc. ;  the 
tree-tops  are  lively  with  songsters,  gay  witli  jjarasites,  air-plants,  and  flowers, 
and  noisy  with  howling  monkeys,  preaching  monkeys,  weeping  monkeys, 
and  monkeys  of  various  other  species. 

In  lhe.se  lowlands  of  intertropical  America,  as  in  the  jungles  of  India,  the 
forests  are  so  thick  set  with  trees  and  undergrowth,  and  so  interwoven  with 
vines,  parasites,  and  air-plants,  that  the  only  way  of  getting  through  Uiem 
is  to  go  by  the  watercourses  in  a  canoe,  and,  unless  you  use  the  axe,  you 
may  travel  a  whole  dsy  without  finding  room  on  the  banks  to  land,  or  a 
place  among  the  trees  large  enough  to  light  a  lire  upon.  The  interior  is  un- 
explored. 

It  was  on  the  upper  waters  of  tlie  Berblce  (hcrlx-.i)  River  tliat  the  mag- 
nificent water-lily  (Victoria  Regia)  was  first  discovered  in  1837.  Its  leaves 
lie  on  the  water  like  broad  and  shallow  dishes ;  they  are  large  enough  to 
float  a  child ;  the  flower  is  fragrant,  white,  and  beautiful. 

Tlie  Guyanas  are  inhabited  by  Negroes,  Indians,  and  Europeans. 

The  streams  and  rivers  in  the  tide-water  region  of  this  country  are  deep 
and  shiggisii— a  sure  sign  that  the  country  lies  low,  is  flat,  and  has  but  little 
fall  fiir  drainage. 

The  products  are  sugar,  cocoa,  and  coffee,  most  of 
which  is  consumed  in  Europe. 

The  capitals  are  the  largest  towns  ;  they  are- 
Georgetown  Population  25,000 

Paramaribo "  20,000 

Cayenne  (from  which  we  get  the  pepper) "  8,000 

Ecuador. 
Ecuador  is  the  Spanish   for  Equator.     The  Equator 
passes  through  this  Republic,  hence  its  name. 


ECUADOR. 


93 


Ecuador,  with  Venezuela  and  New  Grenada,  once 
formed  the  Republic  of  Colombia.  Torn  by  faction 
and  civil  war,  they  separated  about  30  years  ago,  and 
set  up  each  a  nationality  of  its  own. 

The  climates  and  capacity  for  production  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 

Ecuador,  with  a  population  of  1,300,000,  of  which 
one-third  are  Indians,  8,000  negroes,  and  37,000  mixed 
breeds,  is  fine  for  fruits  and  flowers.  It  is  not  so  large 
as  Texas. 

Quito,  its  capital,  having  a  population  of  80,000,  is  situ- 
ated 9,528  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  lies  at  the 
foot  of  Pichincha,  a  volcanic  mountain  18,976  feet  high, 
with  a  crater  half  a  mile  deep. 

No  less  than  eleven  peaks,  all  white  with  their  snow-caps,  are  in  full  view 
from  the  Plaza,  or  great  public  square  of  tliis  city. 

Guayaquil,  having  a  population  of  18,000,  is  the  port 
of  Quito,  and  the  principal  seaport  town  of  the  Republic. 
From  it  are  exported  hides,  straw  hats,  grass  hammocks, 
timber,  cacao,  Peruvian  bark,  and  tobacco. 

It  is  situated  on  the  Guayaquil  river,  which  is  navigable  thence  to  the  sea 
for  large  vessels.  The  watere  and  shores  of  this  stream,  wliere  there  is  no 
winter  to  freeze  or  to  chill,  are  very  prolific.  The  branches  which  hang  in 
the  river  are  often  loaded  with  oysters,  whicli  cling  to  them  as  they  do  to  tlie 
rocks — hence  it  is  said  that  in  Guayaquil  "  oysters  grow  on  trees."  Iguanos, 
alligators,  and  reptiles  abound.  Tlie  natives  on  the  banks  of  this  river  build 
tlieir  liutson  piles,  to  prevent  tiieir  children  from  being  devoured  by  these 
monsters. 

It  is  here  that  you  see  the  bud,  the  blossom,  and  the  delicious  fruit  on  the 
orange-tree  all  at  the  same  time. 

There  is  a  famous  old  University  at  Cuenpa  ;  and 
Loxa,  which  is  6,760  feet  above  the  sea,  was  once  famed 
for  its  cinchona  forests. 

The  bark  of  the  cinchona-tree  is  the  well-known 
"  Peruvian  bark"  of  commerce,  and  yields  to  the  phar- 
maco[)ia  of  our  times  the  valuable  medicine  of  quinine. 

Instead  of  cutting  down  the  tree,  stripping  all  the  bark  from  the  trunk,  and 
leaving  the  stump  to  put  out  a  new  growtli,  tlie  custom  among  those  thrift- 
less people  was  to  strip  the  tree  as  it  stood,  as  high  as  they  could  reach,  and 
then  leave  it  standing  with  most  of  its  bark  still  upon  it.  All  trees  left  in 
tliat  condition  are  attacked  by  a  worm  that  destroys  tliem  root  and  branch. 

This  tree  is  indigenous  to  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Andes,  from  Bolivia  to  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
and  to  no  other  part  of  the  world. 

The  cinchona  forests  are  nearly  all  destroyed. 

The  hamlet  of  Antisana,  at  the  height  of  13,500  feet, 
was  long  thought  to  be  the  highest  human  habitation  on 
the  earth  ;  but  there  are  in  Peru  inhabited  places  much 
liigher,  such  as  the  village  of  Tacora,  which  is  196  feet 
higher,  and  the  Relay  House  of  Rumihuasi,  in  Peru, 
15,540  feet.  This  station  is  situated  at  the  edge  of  the 
snow-line. 

At  the  Equator  the  snow-line  is  16,000  feet  above 


the  level  of  the  sea.     Beyond  that  height  the  air  is  too 
attenuated  for  long-continued  human  existence. 

There  is  about  the  Equator  in  this  Republic  a  group 
of  remarkable  mountain-peaks. 

Among  them  is  the  dome-shaped  Chimborazo,  one  of  nature's  most  impos- 
ing structures,  standing  at  the  enormous  elevation  of  four  miles  in  perpen- 
dicular height  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Andes  also  have  higher  peaks 
than  Chimborazo. 

Mariners  have  descried  this  mountain  at  the  distance  of  more  than  one 
hundred  miles  out  at  sea,  and  by  moonlight  the  author  has  seen  it  at  the 
distance  of  ninety  miles. 

Last  in  this  wonderful  arra}""  of  burning  mountains, 
with  their  layers  of  colored  snow,  we  come  to  the  terrific 
and  awfully  grand  Cotopaxi,  the  loftiest  volcano  of  the 

Andes. 

It  is  near  the  Equator,  and  stands  in  perpendicular 
height  18,870  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

In  its  eruptions,  and  with  a  noise  that  is  said  to  have 
been  heard  at  the  distance  of  six  hundred  miles,  it  shoots 
out  a  column  of  flame  into  the  upper  air  half  a  mile 
high. 

All  the  way  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  up,  theie  is,  arranged  along  on 
the  tops  of  the  Andes,  like  a  line  of  sentinels,  a  succession  of  these  snow- 
capped volcanoes. 

The  Galapagos  Islands,  situated  -under  ''the  /u/e,"* 
belong  to  Ecuador  ;  they  are  the  only  inhabitable  group 
of  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  that  were  uninhabited  at 
the  time  of  their  discovery. 

Quesfious. — What  are  tlie  area  and  population  of  the  United  States 
of  Colombia? — In  wlial  country  does  the  Panama  railway  lie? — What  do 
we  get  from  Panama? — What  are  the  chief  agricultural  staples  for  which 
the  climates  of  these  States  are  adapted? — Wliere  are  the  chief  branches  of 
manufecture  in  South  America? — Describe  the  air  volcanoes. 

What  is  the  capital  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia? — What  is  iis 
I)opulation  ?  — What  is  said  of  Bogota  and  the  ascent  of  its  surrounding 
peaks  ? 

Describe  their  climate. — What  inconvenience  do  travellers  experience 
when  they  ascend  high  mountains? 

What  are  the  mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  ? 

What  are  the  area  and  population  of  Venezuela? — What  large  river  has 
it? — How  does  tlie  face  of  the  country  compare  with  that  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  ? — What  are  its  chief  sources  of  wealth  ? — What  are  tiie 
Llanos? — Describe  tlie  seasons. — Tlie  overflowing  of  the  Orinoco. — The 
aspect  of  the  country  in  the  rainy  season,  and  then  in  the  diy. 

Describe  the  flora  of  Venezuela,  with  the  mimosa  and  the  "cow-tree." — 
What  does  Venezuela  export? 

What  is  the  population  or  the  capital? — Describe  the  sUla  of  Caracas. — 
Wliat  place  in  Venezuela  is  celebrated  for  its  tobacco? — For  what  is  Caracas 
celebrated? — Tell  about  the  ancient  city  of  Cumana,  and  the  celebritji  of  tlie 
Ciudad  Bolivar. 

What  are  theGuyanas?— Describe  the  Guyinas  and  tell  their  size.— What 
is  their  population  ?—TIieir  climate  and  productions  ?— Describe  the  rivers 
and  the  rainfall  of  that  part  of  this  country.— Describe  the  forests  and  rivers 
of  these  countries,  with  the  beasts,  birds,  fish,  and  reptiles  that  are  found  in 
them. — Wliat  celebrated  flowering-plant  was  first  discovered  in  the  Berbice  ? 
—Can  you  tell  anything  about  the  Victoria  Kegia? — By  whom  are  the  Gui- 
anas  inhabited? — What  is  the  population  of  their  capitals? — What  do  we 
get  from  there  ? 

*  The  Equator  is  called  by  pailorg  "  the  line." 


94 


BRAZIL. 


How  does  Ecuador  derive  its  name? — What  is  tlie  port  of  Quito? — What 
paradox  does  the  Guayaquil  river  present? — Which  city  is  situated  at  tlie 
greatest  height  above  the  sea,  Mexico,  Bogota,  or  Quito? — Describe  tlie  situa- 
tion of  Quito. — Describe  the  situation  of  Guayaquil. — Tell  its  exports. — Tell 
about  the  river  and  the  country-houses  on  its  banks. — What  is  the  chinchona- 
tree  ?— Describe  these  Stated  in  their  orographical  aspects.— (The  scholar 
may  examine,  at  this  point,  the  Orograjjhic  View  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Amazon,  p.  9G). 


LESSOJV   L. 

Equatorial  South  Amoxica. 

Brazil. 

The  chief  magistrate  of  Brazil  is  the  only  ruler  in 
America  that  wears  a  crown. 

This  empire  lies  between  the  parallels  of  4°  north 
latitude  and  30°  south  latitude.  For  geniality  of  cli- 
mate, breadth  of  border,  and  capacity  for  production,  it 
is  surpassed  by  no  country  on  the  globe. 

With  an  area  (3,230,000  square  miles)  ,arger  than 
that  of  the  United  States  without  Alaska,  Brazil  has  a 
little  more  than  one-fourth  as  many  inhabitants  as  we 
have.     It  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

Brazil  was  accidentally  discovered  by  a  Portuguese  navigator  in  the  year 
1500.  He  was  bound  to  India,  and,  much  against  his  will,  was  drifted  to  the 
westward  by  the  trade-wind,  and  found  himself  on  a  lee-shore  near  Cape  St. 
Iloque. 

Owing  to  this  circumstance  Portugal  asserted  her  rights  as  a  discoverer, 
and  Brazil  became  a  Portuguese  po-ssession,  and  was  colonized  by  Portugal. 
Its  inhabitants  are  of  ditferent  races  and  of  mixed  bloods. 

The  "  King  of  Rivers,"  as  the  Indians  call  the  Amazon,  diains  the  largest 
imrtion  of  Brazil. 


TBB     LOWER     AMAZON. 


This  river  has  tributaries  that  in  their  course  traverse  more  parallels  of 
latitude  than  the  Mississippi  does.  The  La  Plata,  too,  has  its  head-waters  in 
this  empire.  There  is  a  gentleman  iu  the  province  of  Matte  O  rosso  who  has 
in  his  garden  two  never-failing  springs.     One  flows  northwardly,  into  the 


Amazon,  tlie  other  soutliwardl3%  into  the  La  Plata,  and  the  distance  between 
the  navigable  waters  of  these  two  rivers  is  only  some  three  leagues,  so  that 
if  a  canal  were  cut  across  tliis  portage,  inland  navigation  would  be  possible 
from  Buenos  Ayres,  up  the  La  Plata  into  the  Madeira,  thence  into  the 
Amazon  and  the  Rio  Negro,  thence  through  the  Cassiquiare  into  the  Orinoco. 

The  language  of  the  country  is  Portuguese,  and  the  religion,  like  that  of 
all  Sjjanish  America,  the  Roman  Catholic. 

Its  principal  industries  are  agricultural,  pastoral,  and  mining. 

Coffee,  at  present,  is  the  great  agricultural  staple,  and  the  United  States 
the  principal  consumer  of  it.  Both  Europe  and  the  United  States  are  sup- 
plied with  this  berry  mainly  by  Brazil. 

Indigo,  sugar,  mandioc,  and  cotton  are  by  no  means  unimportant  articles 
of  cultivation  and  export. 

The  cotton  of  Brazil  ranks,  in  the  Liverpool  markets,  with  our  own,  wiiicli 
is  the  most  esteemed  ot  any. 

Cattle,  as  in  the  La  Plata  country,  are  raised  chiefly 
for  their  horns  and  bones,  hides  and  tallow,  large  quan- 
tities of  which  are  brought  to  the  United  States. 

The  richest  gold-mines  in  the  world  are  in  Brazil, 
which  also  has  diamond-mines,  and  precious  stones  of 
rare  beauty  and  great  value,  with  exhaustless  treasures 
of  the  baser  metals,  such  as  copper,  zinc,  lead,  iron,  etc. 

The  diamond-mines  are  in  the  province  of  Miuas  Geraes. 

Besides  cattle,  the  plains  and  forests  of  Brazil  abound  in  birds  and  insects 
of  the  most  brilliant  casques  and  beautiful  plumage. 

The  catching  of  them,  for  ornament;il  work,  is  a  special  branch  of  indus- 
try.    The  feather-work  from  the  convents  of  Brazil  is  famed  for  its  elegance. 

From  the  forests  of  Brazil  we  get  our  chief  supi)lies  of 
india-rubber.     The  best  comes  from  the  Amazon. 

Other  gums,  spices,  nuts,  perfumes,  drugs,  ))alsams, 
and  medicines,  such  as  rhubarb,  sarsaparilla,  jalap, 
sassafras,  holy  wood,  dragon's  blood,  licorice,  and 
ginger,  amounting  to  a  large  sum  in  value,  are  likewise 
exported  from  Para. 

--  --  —  — —-  Brazil,  consider- 
ing its  extent,  is  one 
of  the  most  abun- 
dantly watered 
r  "  ^                                 countries      in       the 

world.  Tlie  num- 
ber and  length  of  the 
rivers  indicate  this. 


The  waters  of  the  Ama- 
zon abound  in  a  species  of 
turtle  tliat  is  highly  es- 
teemed as  an  article  of  food, 
and  valued  on  account  of 
tlie  oil  obtained  from  its  eggs. 
At  the  laying  season  it 
scrapes  a  hole  in  the  sand 
in  which  a  single  terrajiin 
will  deposit  a  half-bushel  or 
more  of  eggs ;  it  then  fills  up 
the  hole  with  sand  and 
leaves  them  to  hatch  by  the 
warmth  of  the  sun.    The  egg-hunters  collect  many  millions  of  them  annually. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Amazon  the  boa-constrictor  and 
alligators  are  abundant,  and  all  along  its  borders  vines 


L 


THE    ANDEAN    STATES    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA. 


9^ 


and  parasites  cover  the  trees  and  make  the  woods  gay 
with  the  most  beautiful  flowers.  Parrots  build  their 
nests,  and  other  birds  sing  among  the  branches  of  the 
trees,  which  are  so  closely  matted  together  that  the 
monkeys  may  travel  for  days  on  the  tree-tops  without 
ever  coming  to  the  ground. 

The  valley  drained  by  the  Amazon  contains  an  area 
of  1,796,000  square  miles. 

The  Cassiquiare  (cah-see-kcc-ah're)  forks,  one  branch  flowing;  north  into 
the  Orinoco,  the  other  south  into  the  Amazon.  It  unites  these  two  river 
systems,  and  brings  the  valleys  drained  by  them  into  one  hydrographic  basin. 

If,  therefore,  we  include  the  valley  of  the  Orinoco, 
we  have,  in  South  America,  a  river  basin  that  contains 
more  than  two  millions  of  square  miles. 

Belgium  has  a  population  of  440  persons  to  the  square  mile.  According 
to  this  rate,  there  is  room  in  this  maguiticum  livur  basin  for  more  than 
800,000,000  of  people. 

There  is  a  line  of  steamers  on  the  Amazon  that  ply 
regularly  between  Para,  at  its  mouth,  and  Nauta  in  Peru. 
(See  Map,  p.  96.) 

The  Madeira  is  its  largest  tributary.  Its  navigability 
is  interrupted  by  rapids  at  the  distance  of  about  1000 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Above  these  falls  it  is  again 
navigable  for  five  hundred  miles  or  more. 

Rio  (le  Janeiro,  generally  called  Rio— tlic  capital  of  tlic  cnii)iie,  and 
its  cliief  city— with  a  population  of  420,000,  aud  a  harbor  unsurpassed,  is 
the  largest  city  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  ;  and,  with  its  museums,  its 
institutions  of  learning,  its  operas,  prados,  public  promenades,  and  botanical 
gardens,  is  the  most  splendid  capital  in  the  New  World. 


Bahia,  with  a  population  of  150,000  ;  Pernambuco,  of 
120,000;  and  Para,  of  10,000,  are  the  other  chief  towns 
in  Brazil. 

The  United  States  have  a  large  trade  with  Brazil. 

Questions. — Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  does  Brazil  lie  ? — De- 
scribe it. — When  and  how  was  it  discoverd  ? — By  wlioni  was  it  settled  ? — By 
whom  is  it  now  peopled  ? — What  is  its  form  of  government? — Describe  the 
climates  and  productions  of  Brazil. — Describe  the  garden  springs  of  Matte 
Qrosso. — Suppose  a  voyager  should  undertake  to  go  in  a  canoe,  by  inland  nav- 
igatiou,  from  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  what 
route  would  he  take,  and  what  portage  would  he  make? — Wliat  are  the  lan- 
guage, the  religion,  and  the  chief  industries  of  Bn<zil  ?— What  are  its  staple 
productions  ? — What  do  we  get  from  there  ? — Where  are  the  richest  gold- 
mines in  the  world? — What  other  metals  and  precious  stones  are  found  there? 
— Where  are  the  diamond-mines  ? — Name  the  principal  articles  that  we  get 
from  Brazil. — What  reptiles  do  you  find  in  this  warm  and  moist  countr}'  ? — 
Describe  the  forests.— How  large  is  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon  ? — What  river 
unites  it  with  the  Orinoco  ? — Ho^^•  large  is  the  hydrographic  basin  thus 
formed  ? — Sui)pose  it  to  he  as  thickly  settled  as  Belgium,  what  would  be  its 
l)opulation  ? — How  far  is  tlie  Aniazon  navigated  by  steamers  ? — What  is  its 
largest  tributary? — Describe  the  face  of  this  country. — What  is  the  capital  of 
Brazil? — Describe  the  harbor  of  Rio. — Name  some  of  tlie  chief  towns,  with 
their  population. — Have  we  much  trade  with  Brazil? 


STREET     IN     RI  O, 


LESSOJV'  LI. 

The  Andean  States  of  South  America     (See  Map,  p.  102.) 

Ecuador,  like  the  United  States  of  Coloml)ia  and  Peru, 
lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Andes.  Each  of  the  three  con- 
tains, as  Bolivia  does,  a  large  area  of  table-land,  which 
is  dotted  with  volcanoes  and  snow-capped  mountains. 

The  base  of  these 
mountains  rests  on 
this  table-land,  which 
is  itself  from  6,000 
to  12,000  feet  above 
the  sea. 

Of  course,  then,  all  four 
of  these  countries  have  every 
variety  of  climate  that  can 
be  found  in  other  parts  of 
tlie  world,  between  the  re- 
gions of  eternal  frost  and 
everlasting  spring. 

In  our  country 
these  Climates  are 
spread  out  horizon- 
tally, and  extend 
along  the  seaboard 
all  the  way  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
the  icy  regions  of  the 
north. 


96 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  AMAZON. 


In  these  four  countries,  they  are  not  stretched  out, 
but  piled  up  one  above  the  other. 

People  here  who  want  to  go  to  a  warm  climate  are  sure  to  find  it  in  the 
plains  below ;  those  who  desire  a  more  bracing  air  have  but  to  climb  the 
mountain-sides  a  little  way,  and  they  find  it 

The  Amazon  rises  in  Lake  Lauricocha,  on  the  top  of 
the  Andes.  It,  with  its  tributaries,  the  Huallaga  [Jiwal- 
yaJi'gali)  and  the  Ucajale  {oo-ki-ah'ld),  rises  each  in  a 
valley  of  its  own  ;  they  then  take  a  northerly  course 
for  sevei'al  hundred  miles  before  the}"  come  to  a  gap 
in  the  Cordilleras  ;  here  they  break  into  falls  and 
rapids  which  obstruct  navigation.  The}"  then  unite 
into  a  gentle  but  mighty  stream,  fertilizing  the  plains 
below  and  conveying  to  the  sea  food  for  its  inhabitants. 

The  Ucayale,  with  its  windings,  is  said  to  be  navigable  for  1,200  miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  Amazon,  thus  showing  how  gently  this  mountain- 
valley,  which  is  drained  by  it,  slopes  toward  the  north. 

These  three  streams  show  that  the  Andean  pla- 
teau is  laid  off  by  nature  into  a  series  of  parterres  and 
terraces,  each  containing  areas  of  hundreds  of  square 
miles,  and  rejoicing  in  a  climate  singularly  equable. 


[The  following  is  a  list  of  names  corresponding  to  their  respective  num- 
bers, as  found  ou  the  Orographic  view  of  the  Amazon  Valley  : 


1.  Bogota. 

2.  Quito. 

3.  Ctiimborazo. 

4.  Laku  Lauricocha. 

5.  Lima. 

fi.  Lake  Titicaca. 

Arrows  show  oceiiu  currents. 


7.  Cii7,C0. 

S.  Paramaribo. 

9.  Cayenm;. 

10.  Para. 

11.  Pernambuco. 

12.  Bahia. 


13.  Rio. 

14.  Llanos  of  Orinoco. 

15.  Tablelands  of  Brazil. 
10.  Itambe. 

17.  Nauta. 


Note. — Let  the  pupil  be  required  to  pause  and  without  the  aid  of  tlie 
numbers,  point  out  each  and  every  i)lace  indicated  in  tlie  above  view.  Es 
pecially  let  him  endeavor  to  .ascertain  Uie  gradation  of  ascent  he  would  make 
in  going  from  the  mouth  of  Uie  Amazon  to  Lakes  Lauricocha  and  Titicaca. 

A  clear  understanding  of  the  orography  of  a  country  is  a  prerequisite  to 
any  knowledge  of  its  general  geography,  as  also  to  the  first  attempts  at  Maj) 
Drawing.] 

Tlius,  a  traveller  ascending  the  Amazon  would  leave  the  hot  climate  of 
the  main  stream,  and  find  in  the  valley  of  the  Ucayale  a  spring-climate  all 
the  year  long.  Climbing  the  next  step  and  passing  on  into  the  valley  of  llie 
Huallaga,  a  milder  climate  still  would  await  him.  Ascending  thence  into  llie 
valley  of  this  Upper  Amazon  proper,  he  would  find  himself  in  a  superb  wheat, 
corn,  cattle,  hemp,  and  tobacco  country,  with  cool  nights,  rare  frost,  bright 
skies,  and  pleasant  days  at  all  seasons. 

In  ascending  the  Amazon  from  its  mouth,  you  um  <i 
with  no  falls  or  I'apids  until  3'^ou  pass  Nauta,  in  Pern. 

From  latitude  30°  north  to  latitude  30"  south  the 
prevailing  direction  of  the  winds  all  around  the  world 


PERU. 


97 


is  eastwardly.  Between  these  parallels  the  trade-winds 
blow  :  north  of  the  Equator,  they  are  from  the  northeast ; 
south  of  the  Equator,  they  are  from  the  southeast. 
!  Examine  the  map  and  you  will  see  that,  owing  to  the 
shape  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America,  the  north- 
east trade-winds  which  thus  come  from  the  sea  strike  the 
coast  perpendicularly  ;  so  also  do  the  southeast  trades. 
Both  systems  of  winds,  when  they  reach  the  land,  being 
fresh  from  the  sea,  are  reeking  with  moisture.  As  they 
pass  on  into  the  interior,  they  ascend  the  great  Ama- 
zonian watershed,  and  deposit  their  moisture. 

The  rivers  show  by  their  number  that  all  the  way  from  the  sea  up  to 
the  Andes  this  is  a  well-watered  country.     (See  Orographic  View,  p.  96.) 

These  winds,  as  they  ascend,  get  cooler  and  cooler, 
and  as  they  cool  they  drop  down  their  moisture  in  the 
shape  of  rain,  hail,  or  snow,  and  finally  reaching  the 
snowy  heights  of  the  Cordilleras,  they  pass  over  to  the 
western  slopes  completely  robbed  of  moisture.  Every 
drop  of  water  has  been  wrung  from  them  while  crossing 
the  Andes,  and  you  see  it  returning  back  eastwardly  to 
the  sea  in  the  shape  of  mountain  streams,  winding 
brooks,  and  majestic  watercourses. 

These  winds,  passing  the  Andes  as  dry  winds,  have  no  moisture  for  the 
western  slopes,  which  are  therefore  rainless,  and  quite  different  from  the 
eastern  slopes  in  climate  and  physical  aspects. 

The  eastern  slopes  are  clothed  with  trees  and  verdure. 
The  western  slopes  in  Peru  are  parched  and  dry  :  they 
are  as  bare  and  as  naked  as  the  rock. 

The  Peruvians  who  dwell  between  the  Andes  and  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific  depend  upon  the  mountain-streams,  formed  by  the  melting  snows  of 
the  Cordilleras,  for  water,  both  for  drinking  and  for  irrigating  their  fields. 
Cultivation  is  carried  on  there  entirely  by  irrigation. 

This  rainless  country  of  Peru  is,  wherever  there  is 
water,  like  a  conservatory  without  glass.  It  produces 
[he  most  beautiful  flowers  and  delicious  fruits,  and  has 
a  climate  that  for  health  and  comfort  is  unsurpassed. 

Wherever  there  is  the  scent  of  water,  eveiy  plant,  fruit,  and  flower  that 
the  most  skilful  gardener  can  cultivate  in  the  greenhouse  flourishes  here. 

Sweet  potatoes  require  to  be  planted  only  once  in 
seven  years  ;  beans,  once  in  six.  They  produce  con- 
tinually. 

The  cotton  and  tobacco-stalks  are  perennial ;  they 
grow,  and  bud  and  boll  all  the  year,  and  the  cotton- 
plant  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  streams  like  bushes  in 
the  wood. 

Thus  you  observe  the  physical  relations  between 
mountains  and  rivers,  shore-lines  and  winds. 

Had  the  Andes  been  placed  by  the  Creator  on  the  east  instead  of  along  the 
west  coast,  the  whole  of  intertropical  South  America  to  the  westward  of 
them  would  have  been  an  arid  desert. 

Had  they  been  placed  so  as  to  lie  east  and  west,  instead  nf  north  and 


south,  there  would  have  been  no  Amazon ;  and  the  physical  aspects  of  this 
beautiful  country  would  have  been  quite  different  from  what  they  are. 

Oysters  abound  in  the  Guayaquil  {gwi-ah-keel')  river;  but  south  of  that  the 
situation  of  the  Andes  with  regard  to  the  winds  and  the  sea-shore  is  such  as 
to  deny  thfe  sea  fresh  water  enough  to  make  brackish  bays,  and  creeks  where 
the  oyster  can  live.  Therefore  the  fish  markets  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  uorlhern 
Chili  are  without  oysters. 

South  of  latitude  40°  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the 
west,  and  there  the  condition  of  things  is  reversed  ;  there 
the  western  side  is  the  rainy,and  the  eastern  the  dry  side. 

Peru. 

Peru  is  more  than  twice  the  size  of  Texas.  It  has  an 
area  of  510,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
2,500,000. 

All  of  Peru  west  of  the  Andes  is  rainless. 

The  sea  along  this  rainless  part  of  the  coast  is  also 
the  most  gentle  part  of  the  ocean.  It  is  never  ruffled  by 
a  storm.  Therefore  remember  that  rainless  shores  are 
washed  by  stormless  seas. 

The  mines  of  Potosi  and  Pasco,  with  others  in  Peru, 
yielded  in  colonial  times  a  fabulous  amount  of  silver. 

Silver  was  then  used  there  as  the  baser  metals  are  with  us :  tires  of  car- 
riage-wheels, horseshoes,  and  the  commonest  household  utensils  were  of 
solid  silver. 

I  have  seen  there,  in  the  early  days  of  independence,  clouted  Indians 
sitting  at  dinner  on  the  dirt  floor  of  their  hut,  around  a  massive  silver  dish, 
all  dipping  and  eating  without  the  aid  of  knife,  fork,  or  spoon. 

The  Andes  of  Peru  are  exceedingly  rich  in  silver, 
quicksilver,  copper,  lead,  and  iron. 

Guano,  in  the  abundance  and  quality  of  which  Peru  surpasses  all  the 
world,  has  recently  come  extensively  into  use  as  an  agricultural  manure. 
The  Chincha  Islands,  which  lie  in  sight  of  the  coast,  are  covered  with  it. 
Nature  has  piled  it  up  there  in  a  merchantable  form,  all  ready  for  market. 

The  government  now  derives  a  clear  revenue  of  some  $10,000,000  or 
$12,000,000  annually  from  the  sale  of  this  fertilizer,  and  the  quantity  con- 
tained on  these  islands  is  worth,  at  present  prices,  nearly  $400,000,000. 

On  the  Andes  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  found  in 
great  numbers  what  is  called  the  "  Peruvian  sheep." 
It  is  not  really  a  sheep,  but  a  species  of  camel.  It  con- 
sists of  four  varieties,  the  llama,  the  alpaca,  the  vicugna 
{ve-koon'yah),  and  the  guanaco. 

The  exports  of  Peru  consist  first,  of  guano,  which  is 
the  largest  and  most  valuable  item,  to  which  may  be 
added  the  wool  and  hair  of  the  "  Peruvian  sheep  ;"  bul- 
lion, cotton  of  excellent  staple  ;  a  few  gums  and  drugs; 
a  little  sugar,  cocoa,  coffee. 

Lima,  the  capital,  has  a  fine  library,  a  noble  cathedral, 
and  54  churches  and  convents,  all  Roman  Catholic.  It 
was  founded  by  Pizarro,  in  1534,  and  contains  his  re- 
mains.    It  is  seven  miles  from  Callao,  its  port. 


98 


BOLIVIA. 


OATHBDRAI.    OP    LIMA. 


Lima  is  a  fine  old  Spanish  city,  with  a  population  of 
120,000. 

Cuzco,  with  its  47,000  inhabitants,  renowned  for  its 
Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  its  ancient  glory  as  the  capital  of 
the  Incas,  is  the  second  city  of  importance  ;  and  Arequi- 
pa  [ar-e-ke'pah)f  with  a  population  of  20,000,  is  the  next-. 


AREQUXtA     IN      1868. 


The  great  volcano  of  Arequipa,  a  truncated  cone,  rises 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  city  to  the  height  of  20,320  feet. 

In  August,  1868,  a  fearful  earthquake  visited  the 
City  of  Arequipa,  and  nearly  destroyed  it. 

Pasco  is  celebrated  for  its  silver  mines ;  Pisco  for  its  grapes  and  whisky ; 
and  Huasco  lor  its  white  and  transparent  raisins. 

The  inhabitants  of  Peru,  like  those  of  most  of  the 
Spanish  American  Republics  and  Brazil,  consist  chiefly 
of  Indians  and  mixed  breeds. 


Bolivia. 

The  physical  geography  of  Peru  is 
repeated  in  Bolivia,  which,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  1,987,000,  and  an  area  of 
536,000  square  miles,  is  six  times  the 
size  of  Great  Britain.  (Refer  to  Oro- 
graphic View,  p.  90.) 

It  was  named  in  honor  of  the  South 
American  "Liberator,"  Bolivar. 

Most  of  Bolivia  that  lies  on  the  east- 
ern slopes  of  the  Andes  is  a  wilderness. 
It  is  above  the  falls  of  the  rivers  that 
are  tributary  to  the  Amazon  and  the  La 
Plata,  and  of  course  is  cut  off  from  the 
Atlantic.     The  climates  and  productions 

of  this  part  of  Bolivia  may  be  said  to  include  those  of  all 

the  habitable  portions  of  the  globe. 

Here,  one  seated  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  and  surrounded  with  the  luscious 
fruits  of  the  ti-opics,  may,  casting  his  eyes  up  toward  the  snow-capped  peak 
above  him,  take  in  at  one  view  the  whole  range  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

You  can  see,  by  looking  at  the  map,  that  Bolivia  has 
only  a  narrow  strip  of  sea-coast,  which  practically  is  of 
no  value.  It  is  at  the  head  of  the  great  Desert  of  Ata- 
eama  {a-ta-ca'mah),  and  forms  a  part  of  it. 

To  avoid  the  })ort-dues  and  custom-house  charges  of 
Peru,  Bolivia  resorted  to  the  expedient  of  making  Coblja, 
which  is  an  open  roadstead,  a  free  port. 

A  free  port  is  a  port  where  there  is  no  custom-house,  and  no  duty  to  pay. 

Coca  is  })roduced  in  Bolivia  and  Peru,  and  is  found 
nowhere  else. 

This  plant  is  used  by  the  natives  somewhat  as  the  betel-nut  is  used  in  the 
Eiist  Indies,  and  as  tobacco  is  used  with  us ;  but  it  is  said  to  possess  virtues 
which  are  not  claimed  for  either  of  the  others. 

The  leaf  is  chewed  with  unslaked  lime,  as  the  betel  is,  and  those  « lio  use 
it  can  go  several  days  witlioul  fatigue,  thirst,  hunger,  or  sleep. 

In  Cochabamba,  we  find  a  number  of  manufactories 
of  cotton  fabrics  and  glass-ware.  In  La  Paz,  the  largest 
city  in  the  Republic,  there  are  manufactories  of  hats 
and  woollens  from  the  fleece  of  the  Peruvian  sheep. 

Sucre,  the  capital,  standing  9,300  feet  above  the  sea, 
has  a  splendid  cathedral,  a  school  of  mines,  and  excellent 
colleges. 

Potosi,  in  its  palmy  days,  when  the  mines  in  its 
vicinity  were  so  profitably  worked,  numbered  130,000 
inhabitants.     It  is  13,314  feet  above  the  sea. 

No  city  was  ever  before  built  at  an  elevation  so  high.  Bince  the  miiic-s 
have  ceased  to  be  worked  it  lias  sadly  fiiUen  off,  and  now  it  is  estimatert  to 
contain  not  more  than  30,000  inhabitants. 


EQUATORIAL    SOUTH    AMERICA  :    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    COLOMBIA.— VENEZUELA. 


99 


Lake  Titicaca  reposes,  with  its  brackish  waters,  at 
the  height  of  13,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Here  the  atmospliere  is  so  attenuated  and  its  pressure  so  diminislied,  that 
the  lifting-pump,  which  will  raise  water  from  the  wells  along  the  sea-shore  to 
the  height  of  32  feet,  will  not  raise  it  from  this  lake  more  than  20  feet  high. 

The  temperature  at  which  water  boils  is  used  to  de- 
termine the  height  of  mountains.  The  higher  you  go 
the  more  easily  water  boils  ;  so  that  on  the  top  of  the 
highest  mountains,  water  that  is  boiling-hot  is  not  much 
more  than  milk-wann. 

Under  this  diminished  ])ressure  evaporation  is  enor- 
mously active.  It  takes  up  and  carries  off  the  water 
from  the  lake  as  fast  as  the  rivers  pour  it  in. 

The  lake,  with  its  islets,  its  shores,  and  surroimdiiigs,  is  a  picture  of  silver, 
embossed  with  emeralds,  and  .set  in  a  mouiitaiii-framc  tipped  Mith  frosted 
work. 

Lake  Titicaca  is  navigable  by  large  vessels,  and  it  is 
subject,  as  all  these  high  table-hinds  are,  to  furious 
storms  of  wind  and  rain,  snow,  thunder,  and  lightning. 


NATITEB     MATIOATINO     LAKE     TITICACA. 

Among  the  rugged  heights  of  the  Bolivian  Andes  the  condor  builds  his 
eyrie.  He  is  the  largest  ])ird  of  fliglit  in  the  world,  and  for  strength  of  wing 
and  force  of  l)eak  no  other  can  come  near  him.  He  can  carry  off  young 
calves,  sheep,  and  goats  in  his  talons. 

Chili. 

(Miili,  with  a  population  of  2,085,000  souls,  and  dis- 
tributed over  an  area  of  133,000  square  miles,  is  about 
half  the  size  of  Texas. 

It  is  a  narrow  strip  of  country  lying  between  the  Andes  and  the  .sea.  It 
is  beyond  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  but  it.s  northern  borders  come  \/ithin 
the  rainless  region.  Further  to  the  souUi  it  reaches  those  latitudes  where, 
during  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  the  west  winds  are  the  prevailing  winds 
— where  the  land  receiving  these  winds  fresh  from  the  sea  wrings  their 
moisture  from  them.  They  then  pass  over  upon  the  plains  of  Patagonia  as 
winds  without  rain. 

In  consequence  of  this  change  in  the  direction  of  the 
dominant  winds,  vegetation  and  sterility  change  sides.  In 
Bolivia  and  Peru  the  western  slopes  of  the  Andes  are 
barren — the  eastern  clothed  with  verdure  ;  but  in  South- 
ern Chili  the  western  slopes  are  ever  green,  and  their 


fertility  makes  Chili  the  granary  of  all  South  America 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  wheat  iu  Chili  has  the  largest  grains  I  have  ever  seen,  and  I  have 
seen  ship-loads  of  it  piled  up  on  the  wharves  of  Callao,  lying  there  for  months 
at  a  time  in  the  open  air,  with  no  more  protection  from  the  weather  in  that 
rainless  port,  than  if  it  liad  been  a  pile  of  paving-stones. 

Chili  is  a  fine  cattle  country.  The  climate  of  Chili 
is  the  duplicate  of  that  of  California.  The  two  countries 
are  equidistant  from  the  Equator,  but  on  opposite  sides 
of  it ;  consequently  the  seasons  are  opposed,  for  when  it 
is  the  rainy  season  in  one,  it  is  the  dry  season  in  the 
other,  and  the  winter  of  one  is  the  summer  of  the  other. 

Chili  and  Paraguay  have  been  less  afflicted  with  revolutions  and  civil 
wars  than  any  of  the  other  Spanish  American  Republics.  Within  their  bor- 
ders, industry  is  less  timid  and  more  energetic  than  in  any  other  of  their  sister 
Republics.  No  nation  on  tliis  continent  enjoys  better  credit  in  the  money- 
markets  of  the  world  than  Chili. 

A  railway  is  in  process  of  construction  from  Chili 
across  the  Andes,  to  connect  with  the  Argentine  railway , 
its  eastern  terminus  is  in  the  City  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

Chili  is  also  a  mining  country.  Its  copper  and  silver  mines  are  energetic- 
ally and  profitabl}'  worked. 

Between  Patagonia  and  Panama  there  is  not  a  single 
liver  emptying  into  the  Pacific  ocean  that  is  navigable 
for  more  than  a  few  leagues  from  the  sea.  The  moun- 
tains are  too  near  the  coast,  and  the  watersheds  are  too 
steep  to  allow  the  drainage  to  gather  into  large  streams. 

Aconcagua,  an  extinct  volcano,  23,944  feet  above  the 
sea;-level,  is  the  highest  mountain  of  the  New  World. 

Juan  Fernandez,  the  scene  of  Robinson  Crusoe's  adventures,  is  an  island 
in  the  Pacific  belonging  to  Chili. 

The  northern  end  of  Chili  lies  on  the  dry  side  of  the 
Andes;  it  is  included  in  the  desert  of  Atacama. 

About  thirty  years  ago,  an  Indian,  being  benighted  in  this  waste,  gathered 
up  such  materials  as  he  could  lind  and  built  his  fire  against  a  rock,  as  he 
thought.  In  the  morning  he  found  the  back  of  his  fireplace  all  silver,  which 
proved  to  be  worth  not  less  than  .$20,000.  This  led  to  the  development  oi 
the  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  Caldera. 

Chili,  like  Mexico,  and  most  of  tiie  Spanish  American  Republics,  has  good 
common  schools,  that  are  supported  out  of  the  public  treasury,  and  to  winch 
all  who  will  may  send  their  children. 

Santiago,  the  capital,  with  a  population  of  115,000,  situated  90  miles  inland 
from  Valparaiso,  is  the  most  elegant  capital  in  Spanish  America.  Its  society 
is  refined.     The  city  is  situated  among  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes. 

"Valparaiso,"  the  Vale  oj  Parndue,  the  port  of  Santiago,  is  delightfully 
situated  on  the  sea-shore.  It  is  the  largest  and  most  flourishing  seaport  along 
the  whole  coast  of  Spanish  America,  from  Patagonia  up  to  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
forni;i.     It  has  a  population  of  80,000. 

Valparaiso  has  a  large  trade  in  wheat,  wool,  hides,  and  copper. 

Patagonia  and  the  Falkland  Islands. 
Patagonia,  mi\\Tierra  del  Fv£go,  is  thinly  peopled. 
Their  inhabitants  are  savages  of  a  low  order. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  and  Cape  Horn— the  Inml  of  fire,  and  ihefuruMe  cape,  so 
called  because  of  the  fiery  furnaces  (ornos)  and  burning  volcanoes  which  the 


lOO 


THE  STATES  OF  THE  LA  PLATA. 


Spanish  discoverers  fancied  they  saw  there — are  both  islands,  the  former 
being  separated  from  Patagonia  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan  {ma-jeV Lan),  which 
bears  its  name  in  memory  of  the  bold  old  navigator  who  first  discovered 
it.  His  name  has  also  been  carried  up  among  the  stars,  for  he  was  also 
the  first  to  observe,  and  to  call  the  attention  of  astronomers  to  those  curious 
nebulous  clusters  in  the  sky— the  Magellanic  clouds — which,  in  those  latitudes, 
are  almost  directly  overhead.    (See  Map  Studies  of  Africa.) 

To  avoid  the  dangers  of  Cape  Horn,  small  vessels  and  steamers  generallj'  pass 
through  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  Its  shores  are  bold,  its  waters  deep,  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  tide  considerable,  the  currents  are  strong,  the  winds  batfling,  and 
the  weather  squally.  In  places  the  water  is  matted  over  with  ke^p,  a  long  and 
cord-like  seaweed,  which  is  liable  to  foul  the  rudder  or  disable  the  propeller. 

Nevertheless  the  prudent  navigator,  with  steam  to  help,  prefers  to  take 
his  chances  through  this  Strait  rather  than  encounter  the  fierce  winds  and 
heavy  seas  off  Cape  Horn.  The  m(Tcury  -in  the  barometer,  even  in  fine 
weather,  off  Cape  Horn,  is  remarkably  low. 

The  Falkland  Islands  belong  to  Great  Britain,  and 
contain  a  settlement  of  not  more  than  1,000  persons. 
Vessels  doubling  Cape  Horn,  both  coming  and  going, 
must  pass  them. 

The  geographical  position  of  these  islands,  therefore, 
makes  them,  in  the  hands  of  a  great  naval  power,  a 
niilitary  outpost  of  importance. 

They  are  almost  treeless,  but  their  tall  and  picturesque  tussock-grass  is 
sometimes  mistaken  by  mariners,  as  they  sail  along  the  shores,  for  palmetto 
groves. 


THE    FALKLAND     ISLANDS. 

They  are  a  favorite  resort  for  the  penguin,  albatross,  cape-pigeon,  and 
other  sea-birds  which  go  there  to  lay,  hatch,  and  breed. 

The  albatross  of  Cape  Horn,  though  but  little  larger  than  a  goose  as  he 
sits  the  water,  yet  of  all  the  aerial  tribe  unfolds  the  greatest  spread  of  wing. 
I  have  seen  one  taken  there  that  measured  16  feet  from  tip  to  tip. 

Questions. — Describe  the  table-land  of  the  Andes. — (See  Orographic 
View.) — Describe  the  climatesof  the  table-land. — Are  they  spread  out  there  as 
they  are  here,  or  are  they  piled  up?— Where  does  the  Amazon  rise  ?— By 
what  two  tributaries  is  it  first  joined  ? — Describe  the  valleys  drained  by  them. 
— To  what  town  is  the  Amazon  navigable? — "What  crops  thrive  on  the  fable- 
land? — How  far,  by  the  map,  would  j'ou  judge  it  to  be  from  Naufa  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  ? — Between  what  parallels  and  from  what  quarter  do 
the  trade-winds  blow  ? — What  are  the  winds  that  bring  the  rains  to  South 
America  ?— What  part  of  it  lies  within  the  trade-wind  region? — Can  you  ex- 
plain whj'  the  trade-winds  bring  no  rain  for  the  western  slopes  of  the  Andes  ? 
— Where  does  their  water  come  from  ? — Describe  the  climate,  the  vegetables, 
the  fruits  and  flowers  there. — Suppose  the  Andes  had  been  placed  near  the  east 
instead  of  the  west  coast,  what  would  be  the  consequence  ? — What  is  tlie  vege- 


tation along  the  shores  of  Peru? — South  of  latitude  40°,  wliich  is  the  rainy 
side  of  the  Andes? 

Describe  the  rainless  region,  the  mines,  and  the  wealth  of  Peru. — What 
of  guano? — The  Peruvian  sheep? — The  exports? — Lima? 

Which  is  the  largest,  Peru  or  Bolivia?— Whence  the  name  of  Bolivia?— 
Describe  its  situation  with  regard  to  commercial  outlets. — What  is  coca? 

Name  the  chief  towns  of  Bolivia. — Their  elevation  above  the  sea. — Why 
does  water  at  great  heights  boil  before  it  gets  hot? — What  advantage  is  taken 
of  this  circumstance  ? — Describe  Lake  Titlcaca. 

Name  the  largest  seaport  town  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America.— 
Why  are  there  no  large  river.s  between  Patagonia  and  Panama?— What  is  the 
highest  mountain  in  America?— How  high  is  it?— To  whom  does  Juan  Fer- 
nandez belong?— Can  you  repeat  the  law  about  the  snow-line  ?— Are  there 
any  common-schools  in  Chili?— What  part  is  desert?— What  can  you  tell 
about  the  climate  of  Chili?— Compare  it  with  that  of  California. 

Describe  Patagonia,  Tierra del  Fuego,  and  Cape  Horn.- Why  is  Ine  doub- 
ling of  Cape  Horn  .so  diflicultV- To  whom  do  the  F;ilUland  Islands  belong? 
—In  what  aspect  do  they  have  importance  ?— What  is  said  of  the  Cape  Horn 
albatross  ? 


LESSOJV    LII. 

The  States  of  the  La  Plata  (Map,  p.  102), 

And  the  Eepublics  of  Uruguay  and  Paraguay,  all  lie 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  their  ])hysical 

aspects  are  the  same.     Like  Venezuela,  they 

are  agricultural  and  pastoral. 

Wliat  we  call  our  western  plains  and  prairies  are  there 
called  "  pampas."  With  occa.^ional  strips  of  woodland  in 
sheltered  places,  the  pampas  reach  from  the  sea  to  the  moun- 
tains, and  support  enormous  herds  of  wild  cattle. 

At  the  time  of  its  discovery.  South  America  had  no  ani- 
mals answering  to  our  elk  and  iiuffalo ;  neither  had  we  any 
l>irds  answering  to  their  ostrich  and  condor. 

The  wild  cattle  of  ihe  pampas  are  chiefly  descended  from 
cattle  brought  from  Europe.  They  became  so  numerous  that 
immense  herds  of  mares  were  slaughtered  solely  to  obtain 
grease  for  the  soap-boiler. 

Instances  have  been  known  in  which,  owing  to  the  scar- 
city of  wood,  carcasses  of  sheep  were  used  for  the  brick-kilns 
of  Buenos  Ayres. 

Great  numbers  of  cattle  are  still  slaughtered  for  their 
hides,  hair,  horns,  and  bones,  which  are  brought  to  our  coun- 
try to  be  dressed  and  prepared  for  use. 

This  country  is  at  present  attracting  more 
immigration  than  any  other  part  of  Spanish  America,  and 
its  government  has  decided  upon  a  liberal  policy  to 
encourage  it,  exempting  the  immigrant  from  military 
conscription  and  his  farming  implements  from  custom- 
house duty,  at  the  same  time  making  liberal  concessions 
with  regard  to  lands.  Thus  encouraged,  a  tide  of  immi- 
gration is  setting  thitherward  from  Itah',  France,  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States. 

The  La  Plata  with  its  valley  is  the  Mississippi  of  South  America.  Its 
coui-se,  unlike  that  of  the  Amazon,  is  not  along  parallels  of  latitude,  but  like 
that  of  the  Mississippi,  across  them.  With  every  bend  in  the  river  you  reach 
a  different  latitude,  and  with  eveiy  new  latitude  there  is  a  change  of  climate, 
and  with  change  of  climate  there  always  follows  change  of  human  wants  and 
change  of  productions. 


THE  ARGENTINE  CONFEDERATION. — PARAGUAY. — URUGUAY. 


lOI 


The  course  of  the  La  Plata,  with  its  tributaries, 
from  north  to  south  traverses  23°  of  latitude. 

The  valleys  drained  by  these  two  rivers  embrace  these  areas : — the  Mis- 
sissippi, 982,000  square  miles,  and  the  La  Plata,  886,000  square  miles.  The 
La  Plata  crosses  more  degrees  of  latitude;  the  Mississippi  drains  the  broad- 
est but  the  La  Plata  the  longest  valley; and  within  this  long  valley  are  soils 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  corn,  coffee,  tobacco,  sugar,  rice,  cocoa, 
hemp,  flax,  indigo,  and  mandioca. 

Land  is  cheap  and  abundant,  and  the  pampas  for 
pasturage  are  boundless  commons. 

There  is  a  large  exportation  of  horns,  hair,  hides, 
jerked  beef,  etc.,  from  this  country  to  Europe. 

The  climate  of  this  river-basin  is  free  from  frost  and  remarkably  healthy. 

Furious  tornadoes,  calletl  pamperos,  sweep  across  the  pampas  to  the  sea. 
They  are  sometimes  accompanied  by  those  fearful  dischai-ges  of  thunder  and 
lightning  which  engender  the  "  fulgurite."  In  the  absence  of  pinnacles  the 
lightning  often  strikes  the  ground.  It  then  makes  a  hole  in  the  earth,  melts 
the  sand,  and  leaves  around  the  hole  a  vitrified  funnel-shaped  mass. 

As  in  all  the  other  parts  of  Spanish  America,  the  Spaniards,  though  in  the 
minority  as  regards  numbers,  are  in  the  ascendant  as  to  control  and  manage- 
ment. Theirs  is  the  language  of  the  country.  The  majority  of  the  inhabit- 
ants consists  of  Indians  and  cross-breeds,  and  is  Roman  Catholic  in  religion. 

Those  that  live  on  the  pampas  are  most  expert  horsemen.  They  have  the 
liabit,  when  going  to  the  charge  in  battle,  of  throwing  the  heel  across  the 
horse's  back  and  riding  under  his  belly.  These  are  the  Gauchos.  They  are 
very  dexterous  in  using  the  lasso.  Armed  only  with  this,  they  chase  over 
tlie  pampas  the  ostrich,  the  wild  horse,  and  the  bullock,  and  they  throw  the 
lasso  with  such  precision  that  they  can  catch  the  biid  or  the  beast  by  the 
f(j()t  while  it  is  yet  lifted  in  flight. 


GAUCUOS  CATCUINQ  CATTLE. 


Tli(!  governments  of  all  the  fifteen  nations  of  Spanish 
America  are  republican  in  form. 

The  Argentine  Confederation. 

This  Republic,  sometimes  called  Argentina,  contains 
only  1,465,000  inhabitants,  though  it  has  an  area  of 
820,000  square  miles.  It  has  a  larger  area  than  that 
of  any  nation  in  Europe  except  Russia. 


Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital,  is  also  the  chief  town  of 
the  confederation,  and  has  a  population  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  120,000  to  200,000. 

You  observe  that  the  La  Plata  has  no  delta.  Its  mouth  is  an  estuary  of 
the  sea,  which  as  high  up  as  Buenos  Ayres  is  still  30  miles  broad.  The 
water  as  you  approach  the  shore  is  shallow,  so  that  vessels  have  to  anchor 
several  miles  out  and  use  lighters  for  loading  and  unloading. 

All  this  part  of  the  country  is  stoneless    and  treeless. 

There  is  a  line  of  railway  in  process  of  construction 
by  way  of  Rosario  and  Cordova,  which  is  designed,  at 
no  distant  day,  to  connect  Buenos  Ayres,  on  the  At- 
lantic, with  Valparaiso,  on  the  Pacific. 

The  Salado  is  remarkable  for  its  brackish  water. 

Tucuman,  with  its  11,000  inhabitants,  stands  in  the  "  Garden  of  Argen- 
tine ;"  8dn  Juan,  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  is  a  flourishing  new  town  of 
20,000  people. 

The  first  congress  of  the  La  I'lata  States  was  held  there  in  1816. 

Paraguay 

Has  an  area  of  126,000  square  miles,   and  a   popula- 
tion of  1,337,000. 

Though  called  a  Republic,  Paraguay  has  been  goveined  by  three  dicta- 
tors ever  since  the  loss  by  Spain  of  these  colonics.  First  by  Doctor  Francia 
who  would  allow  no  foreigner  to  come  within  his  dominions;  then  by 
Lopez,  and  afterward  by  his  son ;  and  of  all  the  Spanish  American  countries,  it 
1ms  had  tlie  most  stable  government  and  prosperous  industry.  Paraguay 
jiroduces  a  holly,  which  the  inhabitants  call  yerha  (the  vegetitble),  and  of 
which  mate  is  made.  Mate  is  a  tea,  and  is  a  favorite  beverage  in  Brazil  and 
throughout  all  the  La  Plata  country,  Bolivia,  Chili,  and  Peru. 

It  is  the  only  nation  in  America  without  a  sea  front. 

Asuncion,  the  capital,  is  also  the  chief  town.  It  is  estimated  to  contain 
between  12,000  and  20,000  inhabitants. 

The  La  Plata,  with  the  Parana  and  Paraguay,  is 
navigable  for  steamboats  far  above  Asuncion. 

Uruguay 
Is  the  smallest  of  the  South  American  Republics,  and  is 
not  quite  as  large  as  Missouri.     It  contains  a  population 
of  only  241,000. 

Its  capital,  Montevideo,  with  a  population  of  100, 000, 
is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where  it  is  GO 
miles  wide,  and  has  an  extensive  commerce  both  with 
England  and  the  United  States.  Lines  of  steamers  now 
ply  regularly  up  and  down  the  La  Plata. 

Questions. — Where  is  the  La  Plata  country  ? — By  wliat  States  is  it  occu- 
pied?— What  are  the  chief  industries  of  these  States  V— Describe  the  pampas. 
— Is  there  any  immigration  to  the  La  Plata  country  ? — Why  is  the  La  Plata 
called  the  Mississippi  of  the  southern  hemisphere  ?— Compare  the  valleys  of 
the  two  rivers,  their  length,  and  the  direction  .in  which  they  run. — Describe 
the  climate,  productions,  and  exports  of  the  La  Plata  country. — Its  lan- 
guage and  religion.— What  are  fulgurites  ? — Pamperos  ?— Who  are  the  Gau- 
chos  ?— What  is  the  form  of  government?— What  is  the  area  and  populalion 
of  the  Argentine  Confederation ?— Of  Uruguay ?— Of  Paraguay?— Descrilie 
the  Argentine  Confederation. — Its  capital  and  chief  towns. 

Describe  Tucuman,  and  the  route  of  the  proposed  I'ailway  from  Valpa- 
raiso to  Buenos  Ayres. — How  has  Paraguay  been  governed  ? — What  are  its 
area  and  population  ?— What  is  mate,  and  where  does  it  coine  from  ?— What  is 
the  population  of  Uruguay? 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA. 


103 


LESSOJV    LIII. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  South  America. 

Boiindaries. 

How  is  South  America  bounded  ? — Through,  and  near  what  countries 
does  the  Equator  pass  ? — Between  what  nieridians  of  longitude  does  South 
America  lie  ? — What  parts  of  South  America  are  traversed  by  the  Andes  ? — 
By  the  Amazon  river? — By  the  Rio  de  La  Plata? — What  countries  lie  south 
of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  ?— Upon  what  parallel  of  latitude  does  Cape  Horn 
lieV — Through  liow  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  South  America  extend? 

How  do  you  bound  the  United  States  of  Colombia  ? — How  do  you  bound 
Venezuela  ?— The  Guyauas  '—Ecuador  ?— Brazil  ?— Peru  ?— Bolivia  ?— Chili  ? 
— The  Argentine  Confederation  ? — Paraguay  ? — Uruguay  ? 


Islands.  • 

Where    are    the    Falkland    Islands? — Chiloe? — Juan    Fernandez? — The 
Chincha  Islands  ?— St.  Felix  ?—  Barbadoes  ?  —  Staten  ?— Tierni  del  Fuego  ? 


Mountains. 

Name  the  chief  range  of  mountains. — In  what  direction  do  they  run  ? — 
Wiiat  moimtains  can  you  name  in  the  northeastern  part  of  South  America? 
— What,  in  Brazil? — Tlie  highest  peak  of  the  AndcT? — Wlicre  is  Pichincha? 
— Cotopaxi  ? — Chimborazo  ? — Aconcagua  ? — Illimani  ? 


Rivers. 

What  is  the  course  of  the  Magdalena  river? — Of  the  Amazon  river? — Of 
the  Orinoco ?— Of  the  Rio  de  La  Plata?— Of  the  Madeira?— The  Ucayalc? 
—The  Huallaga?— Tlie  Tocantins?— The  Cassiquiarc  ?— The  Parana  ?—Tiic 
Para? — The  Paraguay? — The  Uruguay? — Does  the  Amazon  receive  most  of 
its  tributaries  from  tlie  soulli  or  from  tiie  north  ? — Name  the  largest  tributaries 
of  the  Amazon— Of  tlie  La  Plata.— Where  does  the  Magdalena  river  empty? 
—Into  wliat  ocean  is  Soiitli  America  chiefly  drained  ?— Where  is  tlie  Piirus? — 
The  Pilcomayo?— The  Mamore?— Tell  where  Uie  Essequibo  river  is.      ^    . 


Gulfs  and  Bays. 

Begin  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  nanu'  the  chief  bays  that  indent 
the  coa-st  of  South  America. — Name,  in  the  same  way,  the  chief  gulfs. 

Capes. 

What  ari!  the  chief  capes  of  South  America  ? — Name  them,  in  order,  from 
Panama  around  the  continent? — Where  is  Cape  St. Maria? — Cape  St.  Roquc? 
—Cape  Frio?— Cape  San  Antonio ?— Cape  Horn ?— Cape  Blanco ? 


Lakes. 

Name  the  principal  lakes  of  South  America. — Where  is  Lake  Titicaca? — 
Where  is  Lake  AuUagas? — Guanac  ulic? — .\I;\racaybo  ? 

Political  Divisions. 

Name  the  political  divisions  of  South  America. — Which  is  the  largest? — 
Which  is  the  smallest? — How  far,  in  an  easterly  direction,  do  the  United 


States  of  Colombia  extend  ? — What  two  important  cities  on  the  isthmus,  con- 
nected by  railway,  lie  within  these  States  ? — Does  the  greater  or  less  part  of 
Ecuador  lie  east  of  the  Andes  ? 


Chief  Cities. 

Where  is  Aspinwall  ? — Panama  ? — Bogota  ? — Caracas  ?  — Georgetown  ? — 
Quito  ?— Paramaribo  ? — Cayenne  ? — Rio  de  Janeiro  ? — Montevideo  ? — Buenos 
Ayres  ? — Sucre  ? — Asun^on  ? — Lima  ? — Callao  ? — Santiago  ? — Valparaiso  ? 

Where  is  Maracaybo  ?— Triaxillo  ? — La  Guayra  ? — Cumana  ? — Cuzco  ? — 
Arequipa  ? — Guayaquil  ?-Conception? — Villa  Rica  ? —  Nauta  ?— Para  ? — Mar- 
anham  ? —  Pernambuco  ?  —  Bahia  ?  —  Diamantino  ?  ^  Cuyaba  ?  — Victoria?  — 
Caldera?— Cobija? — La  Paz  ?— Where  is  Coquimbo  ? — Copiapo? — Potosi?— 
Ayacucho. 


Routet^  and    Distances. 

In  what  direction  and  what  distance  (always,  of  course,  using  the  scale  of 
miles)  is  Bogota  from  Cartagena? — From  Panama? — From  Quito? 

How  far  is  Quito  from  Lima? — Prom  Guayaquil  ? — From  Valparaiso? 

How  far  is  Quito  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon? — How  wide  is  South 
America  on  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  ? 

How  far  is  it  from  Rio  to  Asuncion? — To  Montevideo? — How  far  is 
Asuncion  from  the  sea  ? — How  far,  from  Rio  to  Bahia  ? — To  Para  ? — How 
far  are  the  Galapagos  Islands  (Map,  p.  20)  from  the  coast  of  the  continent  ? 


Miscellaneous. 

Which  of  the  countries  of  South  America  has  the  greatest  extent  of  sea- 
coast? — What  extent  of  sea-coast  has  Ecuador? — Can  you  point  out  on  the 
map  where  the  chinch;)na-tree  grows  ? — Can  you  point  out  on  the  map  the 
famous  old  road  of  the  Incas  (see  page  90)  ? — Can  you  find  the  hamlet  of 
Antisana  (13,453  feet  above  the  sea)? — Point  out  the  Cumbre  Pass.  It  Imds 
_from  Valparaiso  to  Mendozn,  mider  (he  shadow  of  Aconcagua.  The  summit  of 
Aconcarjua  is  several  thovsund  feet  above  the  snow-line. 


16,000  ft. 


SNOW-LINE 


At  the  Equator  tJie  snow-line  is  \{\fi()0  feft  high,  and  the  furtlier  you  go  from 
the  Equator,  eitli^r  to  the  north  or  the  south,  the  lower  is  tlie  snow-line,  until,  nboni 
the  70th  parallel  of  latitude,it  touches  tlie  earth's  surface.  This  is  a  geographical 
law  which  you  ought  to  remember. 

Where  is  Hermit  Island  ? — Trinidad  ? — The  desert  of  Atacama  ? 


I04 


EUROPE. 


"'^^^^AVV^ 


SCENERY     ANn     A  N  I M  A  I-    LIPE     IN     EUROrE. 


LESSOJV  LIV, 
Europe.     (Map,  p.  124.) 

1.  Political  Geoifraphy. — Europe  is  an  oM  country, 
and  its  nationalities  count  their  ages  by  centuries. 

The  States  of  Europe  are  four  Republics,  four  Em- 
pires, and  fourteen  Kingdoms,  besides  a  number  of 
Duchies,  Principalities,  and  free  States  which  belong 
chiefly  to  Grermany,  and  arc  not  recognized  among 
nations  as  separate  and  independent  powers. 

The  new  Gei-mau  Empire  includes  the  kingdoms  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  Ba- 
varia, and  Wiirtemberg — all  of  wliicU.  are  one  power. 

Sweden  and  Norway  are  under  one  king,  and  the 
Emperor  of  Austria  is  king  of  Hungary  also.  These 
four  countries,  therefore,  make  but  two  powers. 

Of  the  nations  of  Europe  one  is  infidel,  and  the  rest 
are  either  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  or  Protestant. 

Europe  is  well  developed  and  overflowing  with  popu- 
lation. 

Two  of  the  States  of  America  are  each  nearly  as 
large  as  Europe.  But  Europe  contains  seven  times  the 
population  of  the  United  States,  and  more  than  twenty 
times  that  of  Brazil. 

Europe  lies  chiefly  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone. 
The  habitable  portions  of  America  lie  in  the  Torrid 
Zone  as  well  as  in  the  two  Temperate  Zones. 


In  Europe,  land  is  dear  and  labor  abundant. 
In  America,  land  is  cheaj)  and  labor  scarce. 

From  such  points  of  resemblance  and  contrast  between  tliese  two  coun- 
tries, we  arrive  at  conclusions  of  high  import  to  the  political  gcograi)her;  for 
the  facts  just  stated  show  that  it  is  easier  for  the  working-man  to  make  a 
living  in  a  new  country,  as  America,  where  land  is  cheap  and  labor  dear, 
than  it  is  in  an  old  one  like  England,  where  land  is  dear  and  labor  clieap. 

Hence  the  great  migration  of  men  from  the  Old 
World  to  the  New. 

^.  Social  Features. — To  an  American  who  visits 
Europe  for  the  first  time,  the  most  striking  features  in 
its  political  geography  are  the  high  state  of  improvement 
i)f  the  country,  the  absence  of  fences,  the  vast  extent  of 
cultivated  or  improved  lands  in  proportion  to  wood- 
lands, the  number  of  villages  and  lordly  mansions  and 
spacious  barns  and  outhouses,  which  such  an  extent 
of  highly  cultivated  fields  suggests.  He  is  surprised 
also,  at  the  number  of  female  laborers  that  he  sees  in 
the  fields,  especially  on  the  continent. 

In  America,  particularly  in  the  Southern  States,  both 
farmers  and  laborers  generally  reside  on  the  farms  ;  but 
in  England,  France,  and  Germany  they  usually  reside 
in  towns  and  villages. 

The  excellence  of  the  country  roads,  the  size  of  the  carts,  and  the  im- 
mense loads  that  he  meets,  drawn  by  one  or  two  horses,  also  attract  tlie  at- 
tention of  the  American  in  Europe. 

3.  Population. — Europe  is  so  thickly  settled  that  there  is  one  person 


EUROPE. 


io5 


to  every  eight  and  one-half  acres  of  land,  whereas  in  America  there  is  one 
only  for  every  one  hundred  and  twenty  acres. 

4.  Occupations. — You  may  observe  by  the  map  that 
Austria  and  Prussia  have  a  small  extent  of  sea-coast  ; 
consequently,  they  have  never  had  a  large  seafaring 
population.  It  is  the  seafaring  population  of  every 
countrv  that  furnishes  it  with  sailors  for  its  navv. 
Hence  Austria  and  Prussia,  though  ranking  as  first- 
class  powers,  have  never  been  ranked  among  the  great 
naval  powers  of  Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  Greece, 
Italy,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  England,  Holland,  and 
Denmark  are  on  the  sea,  and  are  regarded  as  the  mari- 
time States  of  Europe. 

Spain  and  Portugal  are  called  the  Peninsula. 

5.  Xfitui'fil  Peculiarities. — The  Volga  is  the  largest, 
but  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  are  the  two  most  impor- 
tant rivers  in  Europe,  and  the  Alps  the  highest  moun- 
tains. The  highest  peaks  of  the  Alps  are  about  15,000 
feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Do  you  remember  that  you  have  been  told  to  consider, 
in  your  geographical  studies,  the  slopes  of  the  mountains 
and  hills  in  every  country  as  watersheds,  and  the  rivers 
as  gutters  for  carrying  off  the  water  and  emptying  it 
into  the  sea  ?  Now  j^ou  can  tell  why,  in  Europe,  we 
have  no  such  rivers  as  the  Amazon,  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  La  Plata.  You  observe  that  the  continent  of 
Europe  is  not  one-third  the  size  of  America.  The 
mountain-ranges  of  Europe  lie,  some  east,  some  west, 
some  north  and  south,  and  some  obliquely  to  these  :  they 
therefore  divide  it  out  into  a  great  number  of  river- 
basins  or  watersheds,  each  of  which  (as  you  will  see  by 
studj'ing  the  Orographic  Yiew  of  Central  Europe,  p. 
119),  is  drained  directly  into  the  sea. 

In  South  America  there  is  but  one  grand  range  of  mountains — in  North 
America  but  two,  one  of  which,  the  AUeghanies,  runs  to  the  northeast,  and 
the  other,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to  the  northwest,  with  a  great  valley  and 
immense  watersheds  between  them. 

The  highest  peaks  of  the  Alps  are  always  covered 
with  snow. 

Immense  fields  of  ice,  called  Glaciers,  are  formed  on 
the  sides  of  the  mountains,  and  are  always  sliding  from 
the  top  toward  the  bottom.  They  bear  to  the  moun- 
tains very  much  the  same  relation  that  snow-slides  do 
to  the  roof  of  a  house.  There  are  about  400  glaciers 
between  Mont  Blanc  and  the  Tyrol  in  Germany. 

0.  Climates  and  Productions. — Stretching  from 
the  heated  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  up  to  the  frozen 
ocean  of  the  north,  Europe  has  every  variety  of  cli- 
mates and  productions  except  those  of  equatorial  lands. 
14 


7.  Natiofialities. — Only  one-third  of  the  Russian 
and  Turkish  empires  lie  in  Europe  ;  they  are,  neverthe- 
less, classed  among  the  European  powers. 

The  European  powers,  in  the  order  of  their  respective 
population,  consist  of — 

Fow  Empires. — Russia,  Germany,  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  Empire,  and  Turkey. 

Foiirtee)i  Kingdoms. — Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Italy, 
Spain,  Holland,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Portu- 
gal, Belgium,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wiirtemberg,  Greece, 
and  Hungary. 

Four  Republics. — France,  Switzerland,  Andorra,  and 
San  Marino. 

Five  Grand  Duchies,  Eigid  Duchies,  Four  Free  Cities, 
Nine  Principalities,  One  Landgraviate,  One  Electorate. 

All  that  part  of  Europe  that  extends  from  the  North 
Sea,  Denmark,  and  the  Baltic,  to  Switzerland,  Italy, 
and  the  Adriatic  on  the  South  ;  from  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  France,  to  Russia,  Galicia,  and  Hungary  on  the 
east,  is  called  Germany,  not  because  it  is  one  power, 
but  because  it  is  inhabited  by  the  "yellow-haired" 
races  who  speak  German,  and  who  have  agreed  to 
maintain  a  certain  community  of  interests.  These  peo- 
ple, numbering  at  least  57,000,000,  occupy  an  area  of 
332,000  sq.  miles  in  the  heart  of  Europe. 

But  tills  country,  as  the  map  shows,  lacks  sea-front,  except  upon  what 
are  called  "  closed  seas,"  and  therefore,  though  a  mighty  nation  and  power- 
ful on  land,  the  Germans  have  never  been  ranked  as  a  naval  power. 


Questions. — 1.  Is  Europe  an  old  country? — How  many  nations  are 
mere  in  Europe  V — How  many  kingdoms  are  there  in  Europe  ? — -Emijires  ? — 
Republics? — Which  countries  have  the  same  king? — What  is  the  religion  of 
Europe  ? — Which  is  the  most  densely  populated  country,  Europe  or  America  ? 
— What  two  American  nations  are  each  nearly  as  large  as  Europe  ? — Can 
you  explain  why  there  is  such  a  large  tide  of  immigration  flowing  from 
Europe  into  America  ? 

2.  When  a  traveller  from  America  visits  Europe  for  the  first  time,  what 
geographical  subjects  most  (excite  his  notice? — Do  the  farmers  and  planters  in 
the  South  generally  reside  in  town  or  country  ? — Where  do  those  of  Europe 
reside  ? 

3.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  Europe  to  the  inhabitant  ? — How  many  in 
America  ? 

4r,  Why  cannot  Austria  and  Prussia  boast  of  a  large  seafaring  population  ? 
— Are  they  first-class  powers  ? — Have  they  never  been  ranked  among  the 
great  naval  powers? — Which  are  the  maritime  powers  of  Europe? — What 
nations  occupy  the  Peninsula  ? 

.5.  What  are  the  most  important  rivers  and  the  highest  mountains  of 
Europe  ? — How  high  are  the  tallest  peaks  of  the  Alps? — Why  do  you  see  no 
such  rivers  in  Europe  as  the  Amazon,  La  Plata,  etc.  ? — What  are  glaciers? 

(i.  What  is  said  of  the  cliuiates  and  productions  of  Europe? 

7.  Are  Russia  and  Turkey  classed  with  the  European  powers? — How 
much  of  their  territory  lies  in  Europe? — Name  the  Empires  of  Europe  in  the 
order  of  their  population. — Name  the  Kingdoms. — Which  is  the  largest  in 
size? — Name  the  Republics,  and  point  them  out  on  the  map. — How  many 
Free  Cities  are  there? — How  many  Principalities? — What  nations  constitute 
Germany? — Why  are  they  called  Germany? — What  is  their  i)opulation? — 
Area? 


io6 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN. 


LESSOJ^    LV. 

The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

1.  JPolitical  Geoffraphy. — ^Tn  okleii  times,  England, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland  were  separate  and  independent 
kingdoms. 

About  250  years  ago  they  were  brought  together 
under  the  rule  of  King  James  I.,  and  were  called  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

The  United  Kingdom  consists  of  two  principal  islands 
and  a  number  of  smaller  ones  in  the  adjacent  waters. 

The  island  of  Great  Britain  includes  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Wales. 

Ireland  and  Scotland  are  in  size  each  equal  to  Maine  ; 
Wales  to  Massachusetts,  and  England  to  Alabama. 

The  government   is  monarchical,  but   liberal.      The 
majorit}'   of  the    people   profess  the 
Protestant  religion,  and  the  Episcopal 
church  is  the  Church  of  the  State. 

This  small  country  has  ruled  the  :^ 
seas  and  spread  her  name  in  all  parts  ^ 
of  the  world.  She  has  carried  her 
conquests  and  established  her  col- 
onies so  widely  that  the  sun  never 
sets  upon  them.  Hav  colonial  posses- 
sions have  an  area  of  8,500.000  sq. 
ms.  and  a  population  of  165,000,000. 
She  rules  one-seventh  of  all  the 
people,  and  owns  one-sixth  of  all  the 
land  in  the  world.  She  is  the  richest 
nation,  and  excels  all  others  in  tlic 
extent  of  her  manufacturing,  sea- 
faring,  and  commercial  industries. 

We    and    the    English    have    the 
same  literature  and  speak  the  same  language.     We  de- 
rive  our   notions   of  law  and  liberty  from   the   same 
source. 

We  carry  on  more  commerce  with  the  English  and  are  more  closely  al- 
lied to  them  than  to  any  other  people  or  nation,  and  therefore,  to  an  Ameri- 
can, the  geography  of  England  is  almost  as  interesting  and  as  important  as 
the  geography  of  his  own  country. 

Moreover,  it  is  instructive  for  you  to  examine  into  the  geographical  con- 
ditions that  are  peculiar  to  England,  and  which  have  helped  her  to  ascend  so 
high  in  the  scale  of  national  greatness  and  renown. 

2.  Early  and  Stibsequent  Development. — Four  hundred  years 
ago,  neither  the  existence  of  America  nor  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  was  known.  In  the  ignorance  then  existing  as  to  the  science  of 
navigation,  commerce  was  carried  on  chiefly  by  caravans  overland.  Ships 
dared  not  launch  out  upon  the  broad  ocean  because  they  could  not  find  their 
way  ;  the  instruments  of  navigation  were  so  rude  that  voyages  were  confined 
to  closed  sheets  of  water  like  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  Seas. 


In  this  state  of  things  England  found  herself  excluded,  in  a  groat  meas- 
ure, from  the  commercial  circle  of  the  world,  wiiich  at  that  time  consisted 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.     Trade  was  carried  on  chiefly  by  caravans. 

3.  Positioti. — But  after  the  discoveries  of  Columbus,  and  after  Vasco  dc 
Gama  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  conunerce  began  to  unfold  its  wings 
and  spread  them  over  the  seas.  It  abandoned  the  backs  of  camels  and  asses, 
and,  instead,  took  to  ships. 

From  that  moment  England  began  to  occupy  a  new  commercial  position. 
iVs  ships  began  to  do  the  cariying  business  of  the  world,  the  insular  position 
of  Great  Britain  told  immensely  in  her  favor,  and  in  more  ways  than  one,  for, 
besides  giving  her  the  lead  in  the  conunercial  race,  which  all  the  maritime 
nations  of  Europe  at  once  commenced  to  run,  it  protected  her  oftentimes  from 
hostile  invasions  to  Mhicli  her  competitors  were  liable. 

From  having  occupied  the  utmost  verge  of  the  world's  commercial  circle, 
England  now  stood  in  its  very  focus. 

From  the  white  chalky  cliffs  on  the  south  coast  of 
the  island,  near  the  Strait  of  Dover  and  the  city  of 
that  name,  England  obtained,  in  early  times,  the  name 
of  Albion. 


(    HAI,  K       CI.  IF  PS      OP       IX)  VI 


4.  Plttpilcal  aeof/rap/n/.—VihQn  you  study  Physi- 
cal Geography  (and  there  is  no  branch  of  knowledge 
more  interesting  and  instructive)  you  will  understand 
how  that,  the  very  moment  Colnmbus  reported  the  ex- 
istence of  "the  New  World,"  the  winds  and  currents  of 
the  sea  conspiring,  England  at  once  became  the  outpost 
and  half-way  house  for  Europe. 

You  will  understand  how  that,  in  consequence  of  the 
great  discovery  of  Vasco  de  Gama,  vessels  trading  to 
India  from  England  could  oftentimes  pass  the  (Aipe  of 
Good  Hope  even  before  their  competitors  from  Venice, 
Genoa,  and  other  Mediterranean  ports  could  clear  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar — and  how  that  England  thus  became 
the  entrcpnt  between  the  "  Old  World''  and  the  "  New.'" 

5.  Ttiflusfri/  and  Itesources. — The  position  of  England  being   in- 


ENGLAND. 


107 


sular,  her  population,  as  commerce  increased,  became  more  and  more  sea- 
faring, and  thus  tlie  elements  of  naval  strength  and  power  were  placed  within 
her  reach. 

Her  hills  and  valleys  were  richly  stored  with  iron  and  copper,  tin,  lead, 
and  coal,  and  other  minerals.  They  became  the  source  of  a  great  mining 
industry. 

In  modern  times,  another  agent  has  arisen  which  the 
geographer  is  bound  to  take  knowledge  of  in  its  influ- 
ences upon  his  science.  It  is  destined,  in  a  measure,  to 
compensate  other  nations  for  the  advantages  which 
England  derived  from  her  position  with  regard  to  the 
winds  and  currents  of  the  sea.  The  modern  steamship 
is  to  a  great  extent  independent  of  these  natural  agen- 
cies, and  has  served  to  diminish,  rehi lively,  the  naval 
and  commercial  superiority  of  England. 

Questions,— J.  Why  do  you  call  the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain  the 
United  Kingdom  V — Describe  tlie  means  by  which  England  acquired  her 
importance. — Why  should  the  geography  of  the  British  Isles  be  so  interesting 
to  us  ?  2.  How  was  the  commerce  of  the  world  earned  on  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America  and  of  the  passage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope? — Why 
•was  England  geographically  excluded  from  that  commerce?  3.  Enumerate 
the  advantages  which  England  derived  from  lier  insular  position. 

4,  What  may  we  learn  upon  this  subject  from  physical  geography? 
.5.  In  what  industry  did  tlie  people  engage  ? — What  is  said  of  the  English 
mineral  resouices  ? — What  is  said  of  the  modern  steamsliip? 


LESSOJV  LVI. 

The  United  Kingdom — Continued. 
England  and  Wales. 

The  island  of  G-reat  Britain  is  in  the  region  of  west 
winds.    Its  shores  are  bathed  by  the  warm  waters  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  and  consequently  its  win- 
ter climates  are  mild — milder   thanfS 
the  winter  climate  of  South  Carolina. 
Look  at  Mercator's  map  and  see  the 
difference  in  latitude  between  South 
Carolina  and  the  British   Isles,  and 
tlicn  you  will  be  better  able  to  ap- 
preciate  the   modifying  influence  oJ 
this  stream  and  of  these  winds  upon 
the  climate. 

In  consequence  of  her  geographical 
po.sitiou,  the  fields  of  England  are 
green  all  the  winter  through.  The 
country  is  highly  pastoral  as  well 
as  agricultural.  Wheat,  hay,  pease, 
hops,  and  the  root  crops,  are  the  chief 
agricultural  staples. 

But,   as   great   and    important  a^ 


these  branches  of  industry  now  are,  and,  unlimited  as 
her  capacities  now  are  to  sustain  population,  yet  300 
years  ago,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  she  could  not,  with- 
out the  frequent  visitation  of  the  most  severe  famine, 
sustain  a  population  of  4,000,000. 

London,  the  capital  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  situ- 
ated on  both  banks  of  the  Thames,  and  a  few  miles  be- 
low the  head  of  tide-water  navigation,  above  which  the 
river  becomes  an  insignificant  stream. 

Parliament  sits,  and  the  Queen  holds  her  Court,  in  London.  It  is  the 
largest  city  in  the  world  ;  it  covers  an  area  (122  sq.  ms.)  twice  as  large  as  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  contained,  April  1,  1871,  3,880,000  inhabitants. 

In  England  the  railroads  have  double  tracks.  They  are  not  allowed  to 
cross  each  other  on  the  same  level,  as  they  do  with  us,  but  they  are  com- 
pelled to  cross  by  going  under  or  over.  In  London  the  cars  on  some  lines 
run  over  the  house-tops,  and  on  others  under  ground  and  below  the  cellars 
and  basements  of  the  houses. 

There  are  28  tow-ns  in  England  and  in  Wales,  4  in  Scotland,  and  3  in  Ire- 
land, with  a  population  of  more  than  50,000  each.  Among  these  are  Livci-- 
pool,  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  Sheffield,  Bristol,  Newcastle,  Stokc- 
upon-Trent,  Hull;  in  Scoiiaiul,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen; 
and,  in  Ireland,  Dublin,  Belfast,  and  Cork. 

Liverpool  is  the  grand  cotton  market  of  the  world. 
Manchester,  only  37  miles  distant,  is  the  chief  place  for 
its  manufacture.  Next  to  London,  Liverpool  is  more 
extensively  engaged  in  commerce  than  any  other  city. 

Birmingham  is  in  the  "Black  Country'' — made  so  by 
its  number  of  coal  and  iron  mines.  It  is  the  great  iron 
mart  of  England 

Leeds  is  widely  known  for  its  woollens,  Nottingham 
for  its  laces  and  stockings,  and  Newcastle-upon-Tyne 
for  its  coal  trade,  glass  bottles,  and  chemicals. 

Sheffield  is  celebrated  for  its  cutlery  and  shot-proof 
iron  plates  for  men-of-war. 


BTBEL-WORKB     AT     f H E F P I K L D . 


Meridi&n  of   0     Qreeuwich. 


SCOTLAND.— STUDIES    ON    THE  MAP    OF    THE    BRITISH    ISLES. 


109 


Portsmouth  and  Chatham  are  among  the  chief  naval 
stations. 

The  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are  the 
most  famous  in  England. 

Wales  is  a  hilly  country,  and  its  high  state  of  im- 
provement makes  some  of  its  landscapes  most  lovely. 
Wales  is  celebrated  for  its  mines,  especially  those  of 
coal  and  copper,  a  tunnel  in  one  of  which  has  been  car- 
ried out  some  distance  under  the  sea,  where  it  is  still 
worked. 

Merthyr-Tydfil,  with  a  population  of  97,000,  is  the 
largest  town  in  Wales. 

Scotland 

Is  the  most  mountainous  part  of  the  island.  Its  geo- 
graphical position  makes  it  also  the  most  dreary  and 
bleak.  In  winter  the  winds  are  cold,  and  the  nights 
long.  In  the  extreme  northern  parts  there  is  at  the 
time  of  the  summer  solstice  no  night.  The  sun  sets, 
but  a  twilight,  bright  euyUgh  to  read  by,  lasts  until 
sunrise  again. 

The  chief  agricultural  staples  in  Scotland  are  oats, 
barlej',  and  the  root  crops. 

The  hills  afford  fine  sheep-walks,  and  good  pasturage 
for  cattle. 

Among  the  hills  of  Scotland  are  found  those  beautiful  lakes  which  histoiy, 
soiiLr,  and  story  have  made  so  famous.  Many  tourists  visit  the  llii^hlands  of 
Scotland  annually,  merely  to  enjoy  the  beautiful  scenery  and  to  indulge  their 
fancy  in  associations  around  which  history  and  romance  have  thrown  their 
enchantments. 

Tlie  Scotch  are  a  steady  and  thrifty  people,  fond  of 
learning,  and  given  to  hospitality. 

In  religion  they  are  inclined,  for  the  most  part,  to  the 
Presbyterian  form  of  worship,  as  the  Irish  are  to  the 
Roman  Catholic,  and  the  English  to  the  Episcopal  form. 

Glasgow  is  the  largest  city  in  Scotland,  but  Edin- 
burgh, on  account  of  its  traditions,  its  institutions  of 
learning,  and  the  eminent  men  that  it  has  sent  forth 
into  the  world,  is  the  most  illustrious. 

Scotland,  with  a  population  of  3,369,000,  has  four 
large  cities,  viz.,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Dundee,  and 
Aberdeen. 

Glasgow  is  the  chief  manufacturing  town.  Its  indus- 
try is  directed  mainly  to  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods,  and  to  the  building  of  ships  and  marine  engines. 
The  largest  chemical  works  in  the  world  are  here. 

Dundee  is  extensively  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
linens,  and  Paisley  in  the  manufacture  of  shawls. 

The  famous  Caledonian  Canal  is  in  Scotland,  and 
Fingal's  Cave  is  in  the  island  of  Staflfa. 


The  inhabitants  of  Scotland  call  themselves  Lowlanders  or  Highlanders, 
according  to  the  part  of  the  country  in  which  they  live.  Those  who  live 
near  the  Border  resemble  the  English  in  manners,  and  are  the  Lowlanders. 
Those  who  live  beyond  the  Grampian  Hills  are  called  the  Highlanders. 

Note. — For  questions  on  this  lesson,  see  end  of  Lesson  LVIH. 


LESSOJV   LVII, 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  the  British  Isles. 

Bound  England. — Scotland. — Wales. — What  is  the  shortest  distance  from 
England  to  Ireland  ? — From  Scotland  to  Ireland  ? — What  sheet  of  water  scp- 
arates  Ergland  from  France? — How  wide  is  it? — What  strait  between  Eng- 
land and  Ireland? — How  wide  is  it? 

Point  out  and  describe 'the  position — with  regard  to  the  coast — of  Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  Portsmouth,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Edinburgh,  Dundee, 
Aberdeen,  Glasgow,  Paisley,  Belfast,  Dublin,  Queenstown. — Which  of  these 
cities  are  upon  rivers? 

Describe  the  course  of  the  rivers. — In  what  part  of  the  island,  and  how 
far  from  London,  is  Birmingham? — Leeds? — Sheffield? — Oxford? — Cam- 
bridge?— Where  is  Manchester? — How  long,  from  north  to  south,  is  the 
island  of  Great  Britain  ? — Name  and  describe  all  the  rivers  of  the  island. 

Mention  its  lakes. — Its  mountains. — Channels. — Straits. —  Seas. — Friths. — 
Bays. —  Capes  and  headlands. — What  is  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to 
west  ? — What  islands  lie  along  the  west  coast  ? — What,  along  the  north  and 
south? — On  which  coast  are  the  most  islands? — Where  is  the  Caledonian 
Canal  ?— Where  is  the  island  of  Staffa  ? — What  is  it  noted  for  ?— Name  and 
describe  the  rivers,  capes,  lakes,  bays,  and  islands  along  the  coast  of  Ireland. 

On  which  coast  are  the  islands  most  numerous  ?— Where  is  Rathlin  island  ? 
— Where  is  Cape  Clear?  (These  two  are  famous  landmarks  in  navigation.) — 
Wliere  is  Holyhead?  {The  Innh  mail  is  carried  between  Dublin  and  Holy- 
hcad  by  the  fasted  sea-Htcamers  known.) — Where  are  the  Grampian  Hills?— 
Name  all  the  seaport  towns  on  the  south  coast  of  England,  and  tell  which 
way  each  <me  is  from  Portsmouth. — Name  all  the  seaport  towns  between 
Beacliy  Head  and  Flamborougli  Head,  and  tell  which  way  each  one  is  from 
Yarmouth. — Name  the  seaport  towns  in  England  north  of  Whitby,  and  tell 
which  way  each  is  from  Sunderland. — Name  all  on  the  east  coast  of  Scot- 
land, and  tell  which  way  each  is  from  Murray  Frith. 

Where  is  John  O'Groal's  House  ? — Which  way,  and  how  far  is  it  from 
Land's  End? — From  the  Orkney  Islands? — How  far,  and  which  way  is  it 
from  Carlisle  to  Newcastle? — Fiom  Glasgow  to  Edinburgh? — From  Dum- 
fries to  Liverpool? — Name  the  seaport  towns  of  Wales. — Tell  their  direction 
from  Milford  Haven. — Which  way  from  Cape  Clear  to  the  Scilly  Islands  ? 
—From  the  Isle  of  Arran  to  Valentia  Bay?  (The  Atlantic  Telegraph  ex- 
tends frfim  Valentia  Bay  to  St.  .John's,  Newfoundland.) 


\ATL  ANTIC    C  A  BLS— ACTUAL    SIZE. 


yF=- 


IIO 


IRELAND. 


LESSOJV     LVIII. 

The  United  Kingdom — Continued. 
Ireland. 

Ireland,  unlike  Scotland,  is  for  the  most  part  flat  and 
boggy.  It  is  the  first  to  catch  the  west  winds  as  they 
come  loaded  from  the  sea  with  the  warmth  and  moisture 
of  the  Grulf  Stream.  It  is  said  to  rain  in  Ireland  three- 
fourths  of  the  year,  and  the  climate  is  very  damp  and 
mild  ;  so  much  so,  even  in  winter,  that  its  green  fields 
have  won  for  it  the  name  ot  the  "Emevald  Isle  " 


2918 


g£     N.   LAT. 


DIAGRAM     OP    THE     -WIND  3. 


u 


In  the  above  diagram  the  aiTows  fly  with  the  wind.  They  show  you  the 
prevailing  winds  in  different  parts  of  the  globe.  By  ascertaining  the  latitude 
of  a  country  and  locating  it  on  the  diagram,  you  may  form  an  idea  of  its  winds 
and  its  moisture,  and  hence  of  its  climate. 

Between  the  tropical  circles  all  the  winds  blow  from  the  eastward.  They 
are  called  the  Northeast  Trade-winds,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Equator;  and 
the  Smitheast  Trade-winds,  on  the  south  side.    The  region  or  belt  of  Southeast 


Trades  is  broader  than  the  region  of  Northeast  Trades.  Examine  tlie 
Diagram. 

There  is  near  the  Equator  and  each  of  the  tropical  circles  a  belt  more  or 
less  marked  by  a  calm  and  tranquil  atmosphere.  The  Equatorial  Calm  Belt 
is  a  place  of  incessant  rains. 

The  arrows  crossing  each  other  in  the  light  spaces  represent  the  air  from 
the  Equator  and  the  air  from  the  poles  exchanging  places  as  upper  and 
lower  currents,  as  travellers  find  on  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe. 

Beyond  either  tropic,  in  the  temperate  zones,  the  prevailing  winds  arc  no 
longer  easterly  but  westerly  winds.  They  are  the  Counter-trades,  and  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  are  called  "  the  Brave  West  Wiiids,^'  they  arc  so  strong 
and  steady.  Maury's  Sailiug  Directions  taught  navigators  how  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  them,  and  by  so  doing,  the  voyage  for  sailmg-vessels  bound  from 
England  to  Australia  and  back,  has  been  shortened  several  montlis.  (Sec 
the  dominant  winds  in  Chili,  p,  99.) 

The  numbers  on  the  semicircumference  of  the  diagram  give  the  heights 
of  the  barometer  at  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  the  globe.  This  diagram, 
made  from  more  than  a  million  observations,  if  duly  studied,  will  prove  a 
golden  key  to  many  mysteries  of  geography.     (Refer  to  p.  69,  Section  4.) 

Ireland  lacks  the  mineral  resources  of  Great  Britain. 
Coal  is  wanting,  and  peat  is  often  used  for  fuel. 
The  chief  article  of  food  among  the  laboring  classes 
is  the  potato. 

The  "Ever  Green  Isle"  is  a  fine  stock  country.  The 
cattle  upon  its  hills  find  abundant  pasturage  in  winter, 
and  the  most  important  articles  of  cultivation  arc  oats 
and  potatoes. 

The  population  of  Ireland  is  5,400,000. 

Even  to  the  present  generation  in  Ireland  famine  is 
not  unknown,  and  there  is,  among  those  who  lack  bread, 
a  large  emigration  annually  to  the  United  States. 

DiibliD  is  the  capital,  and  a  fine,  flourishing  city,  with 
a  large  commerce. 

Belfast  manufactures  more  linen  goods  than  any  other 
town  in  the  British  empire. 

Queenstown,  in  the  harbor  of  Cork,  is  the  i)lace  where 
the  mail-steamers  that  ply  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  touch,  to  receive  and  land  passengers 
and  mails,  both  coming  and  going. 

Qncsfious.—Descnhe  the  situation  of  the  British  Islands,  and  the  influ- 
ence exercised  by  the  Gulf  Stream  upon  their  chmate.— Which  lias  often- 
times the  coldest  weather  in  winter.  South  Carolina  or  Great  Britain?— How 
do  you  account  for  it ?— What  is  the  difference  of  latitude?— What  are  the 
chief  industrial  pursuits  of  the  people  ? 

Describe  London,  and  the  railways  of  England —How  many  cities  are 
there  in  England  having  more  than  50,000  inhabitants  each  V— Where  is  the 
great  cotton-market  of  the  world,  and  where  the  most  extensive  n\aniifacliue 
of  cotton  goods?— What  arc  its  chief  iron  and  coal  markets?— For  wlial 
branches  of  industry  are  Liveipool,  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Sheffield, 
Leeds,  and  Nottingham  chiefly  noted  ?— Where  are  the  principal  naval  sta- 
tions ?— Describe  Wales;  its  minerals  and  industries.— What  is  the  largest 
town  in   Wales? — Where  is  it? 

Describe  Scotland  and  its  inhabitants.— Their  religion.— Wli at  are  the  chief 
staples  of  cultivation  in  Scotland  ?— What,  besides  their  natural  beauty,  at- 
tracts tourists  to  the  Highlands  of  Scotland?— Describe  the  chief  towns  of 
Scotland;  their  industries  and  population.— What  is  the  population  of 
Scotland? 

Describe  Ireland.— Explain  the  Diagram  of  the  Winds.— The  chief  agricul- 
tural productions  of  Ireland.— Its  population  and  chief  towns.— Their  in- 
dustries, and  the  resources  of  the  country. 


FRANCE. 


1 1 1 


LESSOJ^   LIX. 

France. 

1.  Climates.— The  climates  of  France  and  Western 
Europe  depend  not  so  much  upon  distance  from  the 
Equator  as  upon  distance  from  the  warm  waters  of  the 
Gulf  Stream.  Thus  the  Gulf  of  Fiuland  is  closed  with  ice 
annually,  from  late  in  the  fall  till  early  in  the  summer  ; 
whereas,  ice  never  forms  at  all  in  the  harbor  of  Ham- 
merfest,  which  lies  12°  of  latitude  farther  to  the  north. 

Bearing  in  mind  this  fact,  and  connecting  it  with  what 
you  have  learned  about  the  climate  and  productions  as 
affected  in  England  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  in  America 
by  latitude,  you  have  at  once  the  geographical  key  to 
the  agricultural  staples  of  almost  all  parts  of  Europe. 

France  has  a  larger  population  than  Great  Britain, 
but  not  so  large  as  the  United  States.  It  is  in  area 
larger  than  California,  but  not  so  large  as  Texas. 

It  lies  between  the  parallels  of  43°  and  50°.  Its  cli- 
mate (except  in  so  far  as  it  is  modified  by  the  west  winds 
which  come  fresh  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  by  the 
south  winds,  which  come  from  the  Mediterranean)  an- 
swers, in  a  measure,  to  the  climate  of  Michigan,  Western 
New  York,  and  the  Province  of  Ontario. 

Owing  to  its  situation  with  regard  to  these  two  sheets 
of  water,  the  winter  climate  of  France  is  not  so  cold  as 
that  of  American  countries  in  the  same  latitude  ;  but 
the  length  of  day  and  night,  the  inclination  of  the  sun's 
rays,  and  the  intensity  of  summer  heat,  are  the  same. 


ti&lArJ£    CAllii 


lACt      IN      JClvANOa 


2.  Productions. — The  winter  climate  of  France  being  milder  than  the 
winter  climate  of  Michigan  or  New  York,  many  out-docn-  plants  wliich  can- 
not endnre  the  American  winter  will  stand  the  cold  in  France  very  well. 
Hence,  France  will  produce  everything  '.hat  grows  in  Michigan,  and  more 
besides.    It  is  a  good  grain  and  grass  country. 

In  the  south  of  France,  along  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  under  the  climatic  influences  of  that  sea, 
the  vine,  the  olive,  the  orange,  the  pomegranate,  the  fig, 
and  the  silkworm  all  thrive. 

In  the  middle  and  north  of  France  the  beet-root,  for 
sugar,  is  an  important  article  of  cultivation. 

The  breeding  of  fish  and  the  raising  of  fowls  also  receive  much  care  and 
attention.  Those  who  are  engaged  in  these  little  branches  of  industry  earn, 
from  the  productions  of  eggs,  fowls,  and  fish,  a  revenue  of  fifty  millions  annually. 

3.  Meliffion.— The  people  of  France  are  allowed  re- 
ligious freedom  ;  but  the  majority  profess  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith. 

4.  Cities.— Paris  is  the  finest  capital  and  the  most 
splendid  city  in  the  world.  It  gives  the  fashion  in  dress 
for  Europe  and  America,  and  the  French  tongue  is  the 
language  in  which  the  potentates  of  Europe  converse 
with  each  other. 

As  designers  of  patterns,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  colors  for  dress,  the 
milliners  of  Paris  and  the  artisans  of  France  excel  all  others. 

The  workshops  of  Paris  will  turn  out  in  a  mechanical 
and  workmanlike  style,  anything  from  the  finest  cambric 
needle  to  the  stoutest  locomotive  or  most  powerful  steam- 
engine. 

Paris  excels  in  the  manufacture  of  jeweliy,  mock  and  real,  of  gloves,  per- 
fumery, and  fancy  articles  of  all  soi-ts.    All  those  articles  in  our  stores  known 

as  French  goods  come  from  Paris.  This 
city  is  famous  also  for  its  schools  and  acad- 
emies, its  scientific  societies  institutions  of 
learning  and  public  places. 

Lyons  is  the  second  city  in 
France,  and  the  foremost  of  all 
in  silk  manufactures.  It  employs 
100,000  persons  in  this  indus- 
try alone. 

Marseilles  is  the  largest  sea- 
port town  in  France. 

It  is  extensively  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  various  ar- 
ticles, from  soap  to  steam-en- 
gines. It  also  has  a  large  trade 
in  human  hair. 

Marseilles  is  on  the  Gulf  of  Lions,  or 
Gulf  of  the  Lion,  so  named,  not  from  the 
city  of  Lyons,  but  from  the  exceeding 
storminess  of  its  waters. 

Bordeaux  is  noted  for  its 
wines  :  Lille  for  its  manufacture 


I  12 


AUSTRIA,    HUNGARY,    AND    EUROPEAN    TURKEY. 


of  flax  and  cotton  goods,  beet-root  sugar,  and  of  rape- 
seed  and  linseed-oils. 

Toulouse  is  famed  for  its  steel-works,  cannon  foun- 
dries, and  its  woollen-factories,  and  Rouen  for  its  cotton- 
mills.  It  is  the  Manchester  of  France.  St.  Etienne  is 
in  the  midst  of  coal-mines.  It  manufactures  about 
twelve  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  ribbons  annually. 
It  is  also  extensively  engaged  in  making  fire-arms,  bay- 
onets, and  cutlery. 

Toulon  is  the  great  naval  dockyard  of  France  ;  about 
6,000  hands  are  emploj'ed  continually  in  it. 

The  winters  at  Tonlon  are  so  mild  that  the  fig,  date,  orange,  aloe,  and 
pomegranate  flourish  in  the  open  air. 

Strasbourg  derives  its  importance  from  its  geograpliical  position  in  a 
military  point  of  view.  The  cathedral  in  Strasbourg  has  tlie  tallest  spire  in 
Europe,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  colossal  clock,  which,  as  it  tell*  the  hours, 
amuses  the  people  with  its  puppet-shows.     (Now  included  in  Germany.) 

Amiens  is  noted  for  its  cotton  and  woollen  goods. 

Nismcs  is  commercial  and  manufacturing,  producing  silks  and  woollens 
and  exporting  them  to  foreign  markets,  together  with  the  oil  and  wine  of 
Languedoc. 

Rheims  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  baptism  of  King 
Clovis,  in  496.  Here  all  the  sovereigns  of  France 
were  crowned.  It  has  a  famous  old  cathedral.  It  is 
now  largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  woollens  and 
in  the  sale  of  wines. 

Cherbourg,  with  its  fine  breakwater,  is  the  most  im- 
portant naval  station  of  France,  on  the  Atlantic. 


Montpelier  is  celebrated  for  its  chemical  works. 

In  Bayonne  the  first  bayonets  were  used,  hence  their  name. 

Nantes  [naniz'),  where  the  famous  edict  in  favor  of  the 
Protestants  was  signed  by  Henry  IV.,  in  1598.  is  largely 
engaged  in  commerce  and  ship-building,  also  in  sugar- 
refining  and  the  manufacture  of  glass,  cotton  goods,  and 
machinery  of  various  kinds. 

Questions. — 1.  Describe  the  climates  of  Western  Europe,  and  tell  the 
influences  which  modify  them. — What  is  said  of  the  population  of  France? — 
Its  area? — Its  climate?  2,  Productions?  ,'i.  llcligion  of  France  ?  4.  De- 
scribe the  chief  city  and  capital  of  France — Industries  in  Paris. — What  is 
said  of  the  French  language? — Describe  Lyons — Bordeaux — Toulouse — 
Cherbourg — Rheims,  and  other  town*. 

^'ote,  to  the  Teacher  and  SchoUir. — Hereafter,  no  (piestions  except  those  on 
the  man  will  be  appended  to  the  lessons.  It  is  believed  that,  after  the  scholar 
has  ailvanced  as  far  as  this  point,  the  queslioua  are  unnecessary  and  may  Ic- 
come  tedious.  licvietc  Quextioiix,  however,  will  he  foimd  at  the  und  of  t!i'; 
lessons  on  Europe,  .\sia,  and  Africa. 


OHEBBOUBG     AND     IT8     BREAKWATBK. 


LESSOJV  LX. 

Austria,  Hungary,  and  European  Turkey. 

1.   General  Geof/rajiJij/.— These    countries   lie  be- 
tween the  same  parallels  with  France.     They  are,  how- 
ever, farther  removed  from  the  sea.     Their  climates  are 
continental,  like  ours,  and  resemble  the  climates  in  cor- 
responding latitudes  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  more  nearly  than  they  re- 
semble those  of  France.     These  countries 
lie  between  the  parallels  of  40°  and  50°, 
and    are  identical  in   latitude  with   the 
States  of  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Michi- 
gan, and  parts  of  the  province  of  Ontario. 

These  countries  embrace  together  an  area  of  443,000 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  55,000,000  inhabitants. 

Excepting  their  capitals,  they  have  only  ten  cities 
which  contain  a  population  of  over  50,000. 

This  part  of  the  continent,  with  the  Black  Sea  basin, 
is  the  granary  of  Europe.  It  produces  corn,  wheat,  to- 
bacco, and  everything  else  that  is  produced  between  like 
parallels  in  the  United  States. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN   EMPIRE. 

2.  The  inhabitants  of  this  empire  are 
Sclaves, Germans, and  Magyars  {mad'jars). 

The  Gcrujaiis,  though  in  the  minority, 
are  the  dominant  race.  Theirs  is  the  hm- 
guage  of  the  empire.  The  emperor  of 
Austria  is  king  of  Hungary. 

The  Germans  are  remarkable  for  their  blue  eyes,  yel- 
low hair,  and  fair  skins.  In  old  times  they  were  often 
spoken  of  as  "  the  yellow-haired  Germans." 


AUSTRIA    AND    HUNGARY. 


"3 


Austria  is  richer  in  minerals  than  any  other  conti- 
nental nation  of  Europe. 


—  ^>< 

MININS     SALT. 

"Wielicza,  in  Galicia,  is  famous  for  its  salt-mines,  which  have  been  worked 
for  more  than  600  yeare.  There  is  a  chapel  in  tlie  mine  dedicated  to  St.  An- 
thony. It  was  built  more  than  400  years  ago.  Its  walls,  ceilings,  and  floors  ; 
its  columns,  with  their  ornamental  capitals;  its  altars,  and  images,  and  chan- 
cel, are  all  carved  out  of  the  natural  salt.  Lemberg,  the  capital  of  Galicia, 
is  noted  for  its  fairs. 


The  quicksilver-mines 
of  Idria,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Lajbach,  are 
second  only  to  those  of 
Almaden  in  Spain,  the 
most  celebrated  in  the 
world. 

The  hills  of  Austria,  which 
abound  in  almost  every  kind  of 
metallic  formation,  are  rich  in 
mineral  waters  also.  Those  of 
Carlsbad,  Toplitz,  and  Seidlitz 
are  of  world-wide  celebriety. 

During  the  great  Earthquake 
at  Lisbon  in  1775,  the  waters  of 
Toplitz  and  Carlsbad  became 
turbid,  then  ceased  temporarily; 
afterward  they  gushed  out  in 
blood-red  color-it  is  said. 

Bohemia  is  also  famed  for  its 
mines,  its  waters,  and  its  fruits. 
Forests  of  damson  and  plum- 
trees  arc  found  there. 

You  have,  no  doubt,  heard  of 
the  Bohemian  glass. 

The  Jewish  population  of 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Poland 
is  very  large.  They,  for  tlic 
most  part,  Cixny  on  the  trade 
of  the  country. 

15 


Vienna,  on  the  Danube,  with  a  population  of  607,000, 
is  the  capital,  and  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufacturing 
industry  of  the   Austrian    empire.     It   is   the 
principal  focus  of  its  inland  trade,  as  Trieste 
is  of  its  foreign  trade. 

The  workshops  and  artisans  of  Vienna. send 
forth  annually  large  quantities  of  hardware, 
porcelain,  silks,  jewelry,  gold  and  silver  em- 
broideries, and  musical  instruments  elaborated 
with  much  taste  and  skill. 

Prague,  with  a  population  of  142,000,  has  the  oldest  University 
in  Germany.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  John  Huss,  Kepler,  and 
many  other  eminent  men.  It  is  extensively  engaged  in  manufac- 
tures, which  are  of  the  coarser  sorts,  and  are  intended  chiefly 
for  the  inland  markets  of  Germany  and  the  neighboring  States. 

Gratz,  the  capital  of  Styria,  with  63,000  in- 
habitants, is  in  a  rich  country,  and  affords  the 
cheapest  living  of  any  place  in  Europe. 

Briinn,  with  58,000  inhabitants,  is  to  Austria 
what  Leeds  is  to  England  for  woollens,  and 
Lyons  is  to  France  for  silks,  Belfast  to  Ire- 
land for  linens,  and  Pittsburg  to  Pennsylvania 
for  glass. 

Pesth,  with  a  population  of  131,000,  on  one  side  of  the  Danube,  and  Buda 
(sometimes  called  Ofen,  the  oven,  from  its  hot  springs)  on  the  other,  with  a 
population  of  55,000,  form  Buda-Pesth,  the  capital  of  Hungary.  The  cele- 
biated  crown  of  St.  Stephen,  which  was  given  to  hiui  by  the  Pope  in  the  year 
1000,  is  kept  here. 


1^- 


HUNGARIAN     COSTUMES. 


-~ — 


114 


TURKEY    IN    EUROPE.— GREECE    AND    ITALY,    SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL. 


The  nobility  sometimes  own,  as  in  feudal  times,  immense  estates.  From 
the  banks  of  the  Danube  all  the  way  up  in  the  direction  of  Brlinn  toward 
the  head-waters  of  the  Vistula  and  the  Oder,  the  country,  almost  without 
interruption,  for  the  distance  of  200  miles,  is  the  private  property  of  a  siogle 
Austrian  nobleman. 

Turkey  in  Europe. 

3.  The  Turkish  empire  lies,  a  part  in  Africa,  a  part 
in  Asia,  and  a  part  in  Europe. 


Turkey  in  Europe, 
Turkey  in  Asia,  - 
Turkey  in  Africa, 


Area. 
110,689 
667,244 

9r)2,8:J0 


POPULATTON. 

9,213,702 

17,000,000 

9,000,000 


Total, 1,7;}0,703  35,213,702 

Turkey  in  Europe  is  semi-peninsular.  It  has  a  sea 
on  the  east  and  on  the  west,  and,  at  no  great  distance,  on 
the  south.     This  modifies  the  climate.     See  p.  62. 

The  Turks,  like  the  Arabs,  have  dark  complexions. 

Constantinople,  the  great  Turkish  emporium,  was 
founded  by  Constantino  the  Great  in  328,  on  the  site  of 
old  Byzantium.  He  was  the  first  Roman  emperor  pro- 
fessing Christianity.  Eleven  centuries  and  a  quarter 
afterward  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  They 
have  held  this  city  ever  since.  They  have  converted 
the  splendid  Christian  church  of  St.  Sophia  into  a  mag- 
nificent mosque.  The  seraglio  {se-ral'yo)  of  the  Grand 
Turk  adjoins  it. 

The  geographical  position  of  Constantinople  confers 
such  advantages  upon  it,  in  a  military  point  of  view,  as 
to  make  it,  in  the  eyes  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe, 
"  the  Key  to  the  East:' 

Generally,  the  streets  of  this  city  arc  narrow  and  filthy,  and  the  private 
nouses  are  mean,  and  built  chiefly  of  wood ;  hence  the  frequency  and  de- 
Etructiveness  of  fires  in  Constantinople.  It  is  said  to  be  burnt  down  on  the 
average  once  in  every  fifteen  years.  The  city  is  given  up  to  idleness  and 
luxury. 

li  is  computed  that  there  are  no  less  than  80,0b0  wherries  plying  daily  for 


hire  on  "  the  Golden  Horn  "  and  its  adjacent  waters.  "  The  Golden  Horn  "  i.- 
an  inlet  of  the  Bosporus.  Its  chief  manufacturing  industry  is  directed  to 
meerschaum  pipes  and  leather.  (The  word  meerschaum  means  the  foam  of 
the  sea.    It  is  really  a  kind  of  soft  chalk.) 

The  population  of  Constantinople  is  1,075,000. 

Adrianople  is  in  the  land  of  roses  ;  plantations  of 
them  are  cultivated  for  their  essence.  Like  Constan- 
tinople, and  most  Turkish  cities,  Adrianople  is  beautiful 
in  the  distance,  but  when  the  traveller  enters  it,  the 
enchantment  which  distance  lends  is  gone. 

Bucharest,  the  capital  of  Roumania,  exports  vast  quantities  of  grain,  wool, 
timber,  salt,  wa.\,  and  other  raw  produce. 

Salonika,  with  90,000  inhabitants,  is  also  beautiful  in 
the  distance,  with  its  mosques,  minarets,  domes,  and 
towers.  It,  too,  has  a  large  trade  based  on  the  expor- 
tation of  raw  j)roduce.     Bosna  Serai  has  122  inos(|ues. 

The  celebrated  Mount  Athos  stands  on  a  peninsula  to  the  east  of  Sal- 
onica.  It  has  been  occupied  from  time  immemorial  by  a  community  of 
Greek  monks,  who  pay  the  Sultan  an  annual  rental  of  about  $20,000.  Tiiey 
are  governed  by  one  of  their  own  order  styled  "  the  tirst  man  of  Athos,"  and 
one  of  the  rules  of  this  order  is,  that  no  woman  or  anj'  other  female  creature, 
not  even  a  cow  or  a  hen,  shall  enter  their  domains.  Tlieir  villages  are  in 
habited  entirely  by  bachelors. 

The  government  of  Turkey  is  styled  the  Sublime  Porte,  and  its  sovereign 
the  Sultan  or  Grand  Seignior.    Many  of  his  subjects  are  Jews. 

The  Danubian  provinces  of  Scrvia  and  Roumania,  and  the  mountain 
principality  of  Montenegro,  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  were  made  inde- 
pendent of  Turkey.  The  new  provinces  of  Bulgaria  and  Ivist  Roiunelia  luivc 
Christian  Governors,  but  are  partially  dependent  on  Turkish  lule.  In  Servia 
there  is  no  distinction  of  classes.  Nearly  every  fiunily  has  a  freehold.  There 
are  no  paupers.  They  have  trial  by  jury  ;  no  established  church,  but  tolera- 
tion for  all.     The  country  abounds  in  natural  resources. 


THE     BOSPOUUS. 


LESSOJV  LXI. 

Greece  and  Italy,  Spain  and  Portugal 

1.  General  Geof/rajihy.— These  three  peninsulas 
lie  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude.  They 
have  corresponding  climates,  and,  consequently, 
similar  industrial  pursuits.  They  have  an  ag- 
gregate population  of  40,480,000. 

There  is  no  city  in  Greece  with  a  population 
as  great  as  50,000. 

2.  Cities  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula. — In  the 
])cninsula  of  Spain  and  Portugal  there  are,  be- 
.^idcs  the  cai)ital  of  Spain,  only  four  inland  townr, 
with  more  than  50,000  inhabitants,  and  two 
Granada  and  Saragossa  owe  their  present,  though 
declining,  proportions,  rather  to  their  ancient  re- 
nown, their  traditions,  and  the  prestige  of  their 
former  glory,  than  to  present  industries  or  any 
living  spirit  of  enterprise  among  their  inhab- 
itants. 


SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL.— ITALY. 


ii5 


Each  was  once  the  capital  of  a  powerful  empire. 
Saragossa — a  corruption  of  its  Eoman  name,  "  Ceesar 
Augustus" — was  in  the  days  of  Rome  a  noble  city. 

In  1808-9,  when  the  French  made  an  aggressive  war  upon  Spain,  this 
city  was  made  iUustrious  by  the  noble  stand  whicli  the  inhabitants  made  for 
its  defence. 

It  was  the  capital  of  Aragon,  of  which  the  patroness  of  Colmnbus — Isa- 
bella— was  the  queen,  at  the  time  of  the  discoveiy  of  America. 

The  glory  of  Granada  has  also  departed.  The  splen- 
did alabaster  monuments  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  arc 
there.     It  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Moors  in  Spain. 

3.  The  AlJifttubra  was  the  great  Moorish  palace,  and  it  is  the  finest 
si)ecimen  of  arabes(iue  architecture  in  Europe. 

4.  Gibraltar  is  a  celebrated  fortress  cut  out  of  the 

solid  rock.  It  commands  the  passage  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic.  The  town  is  inhab- 
ited by  people  of  all  nationalities.  It  is  a  free  port, 
and  belongs  to  England. 

.5.  Alpine  Passes. — One  of  the  best  passes  across  the  Alps  leads 
tlirougli  Milan,  the  entrepot  of  trade  from  Genoa  and  Northern  Italy  with 
Central  Europe. 

There  is  a  considerable  Swiss  trade  with  Italy  across 
Lake  Lucerne  and  over  the  pass  of  the  St.  Gothard. 
The  Great  St.  Bernard  (crossed  by  Napoleon  and  his 
army  in  1800),  the  Grimsel,  the  Cervin,  and  the  Splugen 
are  the  other  passes  most  frequented. 

Turin,  like  Milan  and  most  of  the  cities  in  this  part  of  the  country,  live 
upon  their  ancient  renown.    Its  manufacturing  industry  is  chiefly  in  silk. 

6*.  TJie  3font  Cents  Tunnel. — By  means  of  the 
Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  which  is  cut  through  the  Alps, 
and  is  the  grandest  work  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  Turin 
is  connected  with  all  parts  of  France  and  Germany. 


MONT     CENIS     TUNNEL. 


7.  Staples — The  staple  productions  of  these  three 
peninsulas  are  the  same.  Corn,  wheat,  the  olive,  and 
the  vine,  the  silk-worm  and  fruit,  all  thrive  equally  well 
in  them. 


Spain  and  Portugal. 

8.  Spain  and  Portugal  are  both  mountainous  coun- 
tries, many  of  the  peaks  being  high  enough  to  be  always 
covered  with  snow.  In  the  last  century  they  were  both 
ranked  among  the  first-class  powers  of  Europe.  They 
failed  to  catch  the  spirit  of  progress  and  improvement, 
however,  which  mark  the  age,  and  have  consequently 
dwindled  down  into  second  and  third  rate  powers. 

Both  of  these  countries  profess  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  Their  in- 
habitants are  of  a  dark  complexion,  with  black  hair  and  eyes,  quite  different 
from  the  yellow-hai)-ed,  blue-eyed  Germans.  But  like  the  Italians,  and  all 
other  people  who  live  in  mild  climates  and  under  bright  skies,  they  are  lively 
and  gay ;  prone  to  out-door  amusements,  fond  of  bright  colors,  and  much 
given  to  music  and  dancing. 

The  clii(;f  articles  of  export  are  wine  and  oil,  olive,  aloes,  and  other  fruits, 
both  fresh  and  dried.     Tlio  Andori-a  R('i)nbliolias  150  scj.  ms. ;  pop.  13,000. 

Our  merchants  have  quite  a  number  of  vessels  employed  especially  tr  oring 
raisins,  grapes,  and  oranges  from  Malaga,  and  there  is  a  large  trade  also  with 
England  in  these  fruits. 

Madrid,  with  a  population  of  476,000,  is  the  capital 
and  largest  city  of  Spain.  Barcelona,  with  252,000 
inhabitants,  is  next  in  size. 

Spain  is  rich  in  minerals,  and  among  the  most  famous 
mines  in  the  world  are  the  quicksilver  mines  of  Alma- 
den — famous  for  their  yield,  and  the  centuries  for  which 
they  have  been  worked. 

Lisbon  is  the  capital  of  Portugal,  with  225,000  in- 
habitants.     It  was  the  scene  of  a   fearful  earthquake 

in  1755. 

Italy. 

9.  Italy  was  the  seat  of  ancient  Rome.  It  was  the 
land  of  Galileo,  Dante,  and  Tasso. 

I  From  her  peninsular  position,  Italy,  as  did  Eng- 
land in  her  insular  position,  stood  comparatively 
secure  from  outside  attacks  in  olden  times. 

Italy  now  contains  Piedmont,  Lombardy,  Tus- 
.,,(,1    cany,  Naples,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  the  States  of 
the  Church. 

The  ruins,  the  traditions,  and  the  as.sociations 
connected  with  Rome  make  it  famous,  and  contin- 
uallv  crowd  it  with  students,  scholars,  learned  men, 
and  tourists. 

Rome  is  on  the  classic  Tiber.    It  has  been  lately  seized  by  the  Italians 
and  occupied  as  Ibeir  capital.     This  renowned  city  is  in  hUilude  41°  50', 
and  lias  now  n  population  of  220,000. 
'■*"'  NoTi;. — Let  the  pupil  compare  the  latitude  of  Rome  with  that  of 

-     some  oflhe  capitals  of  the  great  nations  which  have  made  their  mark  in 
histoiy,  and  note  their  difference  in  climate. 

Italy  is  also  Roman  Calholic  in  religion.  The  Pope  still  holds  his 
court  in  Rome;  though  his  temporal  power  is  limited  to  the  Stales  of  the 
Church,  with  a  population  of  733,000,  and  an  area  of  4,550  square  miles. 

The  Pontine  Marshes  are  in  the  southern  part  of  the  pontificial  territory. 
They  were  once  so  poisonous,  tluU  to  sleep  in  them  for  a  single  night  was 
considered  fatal. 


ww^wawi^wwww 


ii6 


GREECE.— GERMANY    AND    THE    SMALLER    STATES. 


Venice,  with  120,000  inhabitants,  occupies  72  small 
islands,  connected  by  bridges.  The  streets  are  navi- 
gated in  gondolas. 

Naples,  with  420,000  inhabitants,  is  the  largest  city 
of  Italy. 

Italy  grows  the  mulberry,  the  olive,  and  the  vine ;  riee,  cotton,  and  the 
cereals  are  also  cultivated  there.  ^ 

Lombardy  is  the  best-cultivated  part  of  the  country.  Its  system  of  irriga- 
tion is  perhaps  unsurpassed.  It  is  also  a  fine  cattle  country  and  famed  for  the 
produce  of  its  dairies. 

Iron  and  sulphur,  boracic  acid,  and  marble  are  the  chief  mineral  produc- 
tions of  Italy. 

The  climate  of  Italy  is  mild,  and  oranges  and  lemons 
ripen,  in  some  parts,  as  early  as  March. 

From  the  marble-quarries  of  Greece  and  Italy  the 
artists  of  all  ages  have  cut  their  finest  statues.  The 
picture-galleries  of  Italy  are  very  famous  too,  and  they 
attract  young  artists  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  volcanoes  of  Etna,  Stromboli,  and  Vesuvius  arc 
in  the  domains  of  Italy. 

The  cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  were  swal- 
lowed up  in  the  lava  and  ashes  from  Vesuvius  hundreds 
of  years  ago. 

The  government  of  Italy  is  causing  these  cities  to  be  excavated,  and  the 
■svorkmen  find  the  bodies  of  tlie  bakers  at  their  ovens,  of  the  potter  at  liis 
wheel,  of  the  servant  in  the  kitchen,  of  the  mistress  in  the  parlor,  and  all  the 
inhabitants  at  their  various  occupations,  just  as  they  were  at  the  moment  of 
the  great  catastrophe. 

San  Marino  is  a  little  republic  set  on  the  top  of  a 
rugged  mountain  over  2,000  feet  high. 

Grenoa,  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  Columbus,  manu- 
factures the  finest  of  silks  and  velvets. 


The  peninsula  of  Grreece,  with  its  islands,  is  about 
half  as  large  as  South  Carolina.  It  contains  1,097,000 
inhabitants,  mau}^  of  whom  are  brigands. 

Greece  suffered  under  Turkish  misrule  for  many  generations.  At  last,  in 
its  struggle  for  independence  forty  years  ago,  it  was  assisted  by  the  great 
powers,  and  erected  into  a  sejjarate  kingdom  under  their  guarantee. 

It  has  a  large  seafaring  population.  Greek  merchants 
and  Greek  sailors  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  ports  of  the 
Mediterranean.     Its  industries  are  chiefly  agricultural. 

We  get  from  Greece,  currants,  figs,  and  other  dried  fruits.  Attention  there 
is  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  mulberry,  and  to  the  making  of 
wine  and  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods.  But  the  country  is  intested  with 
highway  robbers  and  brigands,  and  the  laws  are  badly  administered. 

Athens,  with  a  population  of  40,000,  is  the  capital  of 
Greece,  and  is  unrivalled  for  the  fame  of  its  ancient 
philosophers,  poets,  i)ainters,  and  orators. 

The  Ionian  Republic  comprises  seven  islands. 

Corinth  was  in  ancient  times  famed  for  its  wealth,  its 
s])lendid  edifices,  and  its  moral  corruption. 


Gbeeck. 
10. — Greece,  like  Rome,  was  also  once  the  seat  of 
an  empire  that  ruled  the  world. 


LESSOJV    LXII. 

The  New  German  Empire  and  the  Smaller  Powers. 

/.  General  Geo{ft'((ithtf. — The  smaller  Powers  are 
the  Kingdoms  of  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Denimirk. 
These  three  Kingdoms  form  no  part  of  Germany.  The 
new  German  Mnpire  consists  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Prus- 
sia, Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Saxony,  13  Duchies, 
6  Principalities,  4  Free  Cities,  an  Elec- 
torate and  a  Landgraviate,  with  the 
newly-acquired  provinces  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  ;  but  all  these  States,  with  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  and  Denmark,  embrace 
an  area  of  205,000  scpiare  miles,  with  a 
population  of  51,000,000. 

It  is  worthy  of  note,  that  these 
51,000,000  people  all  inhabit  a  region 
of  country  not  quite  so  large  as  Texas. 

The  total  population  of  the  New  Ger- 
man Empire  is  41,000,000  ;  its  area  is 
225,000  square  miles. 

These  51,000,000  people  have  built  up 
31  cities,  each  with  a  population  of  50,000 
and  upward. 

There  is  a  large  emigration  annually  from  these  coun- 
tries to  the  United  States,  chiefly  from  the  ports  of  Bre- 
men and  Hamburg,  from  wliich  tlicre  are  lines  of  steamers  to  America,  as 
there  are  from  Havre,  South.uupton,  and  Liverpool. 

2.    Hamburg   and   Bremen.— Hamburg,    with   a    population    of 


PRUSSIA. 


117 


305:000,  is  the  chief  seaport  of  the  North  German  states.  It  is  on  tlie  Elbe, 
about  70  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Bremen  has  a  population  of  75,000,  and  is  a  rival  of  Hamburg  for  German 
commerce. 

Lubeck,  another  of  the  Free  Cities,  next  in  importance  to  Bremen,  has  a 
population  of  51,000.  The  crust  of  the  earth  at  Lubeck  has  been,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  centuries,  perceptibly  raised  out  of  the  sea. 

3.  Intellectual  C/tar«c^c>\— The  inhabitants  of  these 
countries  are  highly  intelligent,  and  very  industrious, 
ingenious,  and  thrifty. 

To  promote  trade,  great  commercial  fail's  are  held  at  stated  periods  and  at 
various  places.  Among  the  most  famous  are  those  held  at  Leipsic.  This 
town  is  celebrated  for  its  tj-pe-foundries,  printing  establishments,  and  the 
cheapness,  variety,  and  numbers  of  its  publications  in  all  languages. 

Prussia. 

4:.  Prussia  is  the  master-spirit  of  Germany. 

Berlin  the  capital  of  Prussia  and  also  of  the  German 
Empire,  has  a  populationofl,000,000,  and  is  one  of  the 
finest  cities  of  Europe. 


ROTAL  PALACE  AT  BERLIN 


At  Berlin  resides  Williuni,  the  first  emperor  of  the 
new  Geniiau  Empire. 

In  the  war  of  1800,  which  lasted  hut  seven  weeks,  Prussia  completely  ab- 
sorbed the  Kingdom  of  Hanover,  the  Electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel,  the  Duchy 
of  Nassau,  the  free  city  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  tlie  Landgraviate  of 
Ilesse-Homburg.  At  the  same  time,  the  Duchy  of  Holstein  and  the  Duchy 
of  Schleswig,  once  Danish,  were  annexed  to  Prassia;  twelve  States,  free 
cities,  viz.,  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  Grand  Duchies  of  Mecklenberg- 
Schwerin,  Mccklenhcrg-Strelitz,  and  Oldenberg,  the  northern  half  of  the 
Grand  Duchy  ot  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Duchies  of  Brunswick  and  Anhalt, 


the  principalities  of  Lippe  and  Waldeck,  the  six  Thuringian  States,  and  the 
Reuss  States,  all  entered  into  most  intimate  and  dependent  relations  with 
Prussia.  Bavaria,  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  and  the  southern  portion  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  entered  into  a  treaty  witli  the  King  of  Prussia,  agreeing,  in  time 
of  war,  to  put  their  armies  under  his  control. 

These  States  have  fine  climates  and  a  productive  soil, 
under  which  is  stored  away  mineral  treasures  of  great 
value  and  abundance.  They  are  rich  also  in  mineral 
springs  and  medicinal  waters  of  various  sorts  and  tem- 
peratures. The  most  famous  watering-places  are  the 
hot  springs  of  Baden-Baden,  the  warm  springs  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  and  the  boiling  springs  of  Wiesbaden. 

The  most  famous  mineral  production  of  Prussia  is  the  zinc  of  Silesia,  with 
which  the  markets  of  India  are  supplied.  But  the  most  singular  production 
is  amber,  wliich  is  cast  up  by  the  waves  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  collection  of 
which  is  the  prerogative  of  the  crown. 

Konigsberg  and  Stettin  are  important  seaports. 
Cologne,  with  126,000  inhabitants,  is  the  most  popu- 
lous city  of  Prussia,  on  the  Rhine.     Ehrenbreitstein, 
opposite  Cologne,  is  one  of  the  strongest 
Prussian  citadels.     From  Dantzic,  large 
.^^  quantities  of  grain  are  shipped. 

^^  Frankfort,  with  a  population  of  80,000, 

J^  was  the  capital  of  the  old  Germanic  Con- 

federation. It  stands  on  the  right  bank  ol 
the  Main.  Munich,  the  capital  of  Bava- 
ria, is  renowned  for  its  literary  institu- 
tions and  its  galleries  of  art. 

5.  Saxony  is  celebrated  for  its  breed 
of  sheep,  and  its  wool. 

G.  Belgium  is  the  best  cultivated  and 
most  densely  populated  country  in  Eu- 
rope, 

Brussels,  the  capital  of  Belgium,  on  the  Senne,  with 
190,000  inhabitants,  is  widely  known  for  its  race  and  its 
carriages.  Ghent  nearly  equals  Brussels  in  population, 
but  Antwerp  is  the  great  commercial  emporium  of  Bel- 
gium, and  has  125,000  inhabitants. 

Leige,  with  97,500  inhabitants,  is  the  seat  of  the  Bel- 
gian iron-works.  Ostend  is  an  important  seaport  on  tlie 
North  Sea. 

7.  Holland  has  literally  been  re- 
claimed from  the  sea,  the  waters  of  which 
are  kept  out  by  means  of  embankments  called  dykes. 
It  is  a  low  and  flat  country,  intersected  with  canals  as 
others  are  with  roads. 

Holland  is  a  sort  of  a  dairy-farm,  from  which  the 
markets  of  Hull,  London,  and  other  English  towns  are 
chiefly  supplied,  especially  with  cheese,  beef,  cattle,  and 
butter. 

The  Dutch  are  a  sober,  provident,  and  industrious 


ii8 


SWITZERLAND. 


people.  They  are  fine  sailors,  and  are  extensively  en- 
gaged in  the  sea-tisheries  as  well  as  in  commerce  and 
navigation. 

Holland  used  to  be  a  great  naval  and  commercial  power.  She  has  large 
possessions  both  in  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

The  chief  branches  of  indusliy  licrc  are  connected  with  the  soil  and  llie 
sea.    The  most  celebrated  lapidaries  are  in  Amsterdam. 


AMSTEBDA! 


Amsterdam  is  the  largest  and  mcst  important  town  in 
Holland,  with  265,000  inhabitants. 
The  Hague  is  the  capital  of  Holland. 


LESSOA'    LXIII. 

Switzerland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 

Switzerland. 

1.  The  Republic  of  Switzerland,  though  only  one- 
third  larger  than  Maryland,  consists  of  22  separate 
States  or  "Cantons,"  which  are  as  distinct  from  each 
other  as  are  the  States  in  the  American  Union. 

Their  independence  dates  from  1307,  and  the  affairs 
of  the  Republic  are,  as  with  us,  managed  by  a  Congress. 

Regarding  Europe  as  a  watershed  that  is  drained,  as 
its  rivers  show,  off  to  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west 
(study  the  Orographic  View  of  Central  Europe),  Switzer- 


land, with  its  Alps,  is  at  the  top  of  the  roof,  for  you  see 
that  the  great  rivers,  as  the  Danube,  Rhine,  Rhone,  and 
Po,  rising  in  these  mountains,  empty  into  the  Black 
Sea,  the  North  Sea,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Adriatic. 
ii,  Mont  Blanc,  15,740  feet  high,  is  the  highest 
peak  in  Europe,  and,  though  situated 
within  the  borders  of  France,  belongs  to 
the  Swiss  Alps.  Mont  Cervin,  or  "  Tlie 
Matlerliorn,^''  the  rival  of  Mont  Blanc 
and  Monte  Rosa,  is  an  imposing  obelisk, 
and  has  defied  every  attempt  to  scale 
its  ice-clad  pinnacle. 

These  mountains  are  celebrated  for 
their  snow-clad  peaks,  beautiful  lakes, 
grand  scenery,  and  their  glaciers,  which 
are  immense  masses  of  ice  and  snow 
tluit  are  always  sliding  down  from  the 
mountains  into  the  valleys  below.  As 
they  move,  rocks,  soil,  trees,  and  every- 
thing are  overwhelmed  and  carried  down 
before  them.  Some  of  the  most  cele- 
brated philosophers  of  Europe  have  spent 
much  time  there  in  studying  these  curious 
phenomena. 

More    than    1000    square    miles    are 

covered  by  the  glaciers,  and  they  are 

estimated  to  vary  in  thickness  from  200 

to  5000  feet. 

Switzerland    is    the   most  mountainous   country   in 

Europe. 

The  celebrated  institution  of  charity,  the  Hospice  of  Mount  St.  Bernard,  is 
m  Switzerland.  It  is  situated  8,185  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  tlie 
higiiest  place  of  human  habitation  in  Europe. 

The  Hospice  of  St.  Bernard  has  been  occupied  for  ages  by  Benedictine 
Monks,  whose  business  it  is  to  refresh  and  relieve  travellers.  They  teach  the 
celebrated  dog  of  St.  Bernard  to  hunt  and  relieve  wayfarere  who  get  lost  in 
the  snow. 

These  sagacious  animals  are  always  sent  out  during  a  snow-storm  with 
baskets  of  provisions  and  wine  tied  around  their  necks  to  relieve  and  revive 
those  who  are  perishing  in  the  bitter  cold  of  these  mountains. 

In  the  dead-house  are  contained  the  frozen  and  unrecognized  bodies  of 
travellers  who  have  perished  in  the  snow ;  they  never  thaw,  and  lie  there  like 
so  many  statues  of  marble. 

The  Swiss  are  said  to  be  the  Dutchmen  of  the  moun- 
tains ;  they  are  phlegmatic,  industrious,and  liberty-loving. 

Owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of  their  country,  which  is  better 
adapted  to  grazing  than  to  tillage,  they  do  not  produce  breadstuffs  enough 
for  tlieir  own  use,  and  their  industries  are  devoted  chiefly  to  cattle-raising, 
dairy-farming,  and  manufacturing. 

5.  We  get  from  there  Swiss  muslins,  ribbons,  toys, 
and  carved  work.  They  excel  in  the  manufacture  also  of 
watches  and  musical-boxes.     Geneva  is  famed  for  these. 


SWEDEN    AND    NORWAY. 


••THE      -M  A  T  T  E  II  II  ORN"      AND      ITS      GLACIER. 

[List  of  names  answering  to  numbers  on  Orographic  View  of  Ct'iitral 
Europe. 

9.  Stockliolm. 

10.  Copenhagen. 

11.  Oldenburg, 

12.  Bremen. 

13.  Berne. 

14.  Florence. 

15.  Rome. 


16.  Turin. 

17.  Paris. 

18.  Madrid. 

19.  London. 

20.  Edinburgh. 

21.  Dublin. 

22.  Athens. 


1.  St.  Petersburg. 

2.  Moscow. 

3.  Constantinople. 

4.  Vienna. 

5.  Berlin. 

6.  Prague. 

7.  Dresden. 

8.  Munich. 

Note. — Let  the  pupil  carefully  find  all  of  these  places  and  observe  their 
comparative  elevations.] 

Switzerland  is  classed  among  Protestant  nations. 

There  are  22  Cantons  in  Switzerland,  of  which  Berne,  with  a  population 
of  30,000,  is  the  capital. 

SWEDEX   AKD   NORWAY 
4:.  Are  two  goveraments  under  one  king.    Each  country  makes  its  own 
lews.     They  form  a  mountainous  peninsula,  often  called  ScANDrsAvr.A.. 
They  lie  between  the  parallels  of  55°  and  72°  north  latitude. 


This  country  is  so  rugged,  and  the  rays  of  the 
sun  strike  so  feebly  into  the  deep  glens,  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  is  not  very  remunerative. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Norway,  during  several  weeks  in  summer, 
the  sun  does  not  set  at  all,  and  travellers  often  go  to  the  North  Cape 
there  just  to  see  the  midnight  sun.  It  is  a  very  curious  and  most  in- 
teresting sight. 

The  chief  branches  of  industry  are  connected  with 
the  forests,  which  are  very  extensive  and  furnish 
timber  for  the  navies  of  Europe  ;  with  the  mines, 
which  furnish  our  markets  with  the  beautiful  Swe- 
dish iron  ;  with  navigation,  that  furnishes  the 
navies  of  the  world  with  the  best  of  sailors  ;  or 
with  the  sea-fisheries,  which  furnish  the  chief  sup- 
plies of  fish  for  Europe. 

The  Swedes  and  Norwegians  are  Lutherans  in  religion.  They  there- 
fore belong  to  Protestant  Europe.  The  Mormons  of  Utah  are  recruited 
chiefly  from  Norway  and  Wales. 

Lajjland,  a  cold  region  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Russia,  is  inhab- 
ited by  the  diminutive  Lapps. 

Hammerfest,  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  most  northerly  town  o/ 
Europe,  consists  of  a  single  street  of  detached,  one-storied  frame-houses 
An  obelisk  on  the  outskirts  marks  the  end  of  ihc  meridian  line  of  25° 
20',     measured  ^^^_ 

by  the  geome-  g^aSP"  ^|^^^i_- 

ters  of  Norway,  _^  ^=- 

Sweden,  and 
Russia,  from  a 
point  on  the 
Dauube. 

It  is  common 
for  the  poorest 
Lapps  to  pos- 
sess a  dozen 
reindeer,  while 
occasionally  a 
herd  of  a  thou- 
sand is  owned 
by  a  single  in- 
dividual. 

The  Lapps 
are  highly 
intelligent,  are 
not  lacking  in 
literary  cul- 
ture, and  are 
remarkable  for  a  lapp  lady. 

their  sweetness  of  expression. 

Stockholm,  with  a  population  of  140,000,  is  the  capi- 
tal of  Norway  and  Sweden.  It  is  built  on  a  few  small 
islands  near  Lake  Malar. 

Gottenburg,  and  Carlscrona,  the  naval  arsenal  of 
Sweden,  are  commercial  cities. 

The  Norwegian  city  of  Christiana  has  40,000  inhab- 
itants. 

Frederickshall.  with  7,500  inhabitants,  stands  on  a 
bav  of  the  Christiana  fiord,  and  has  an  obelisk  to  mark 


DENMARK.  —RUSSIA. 


121 


the  spot  where  the  famous  Charles  XII.  fell,  in  1718, 
■while  besieging  the  fortress. 

Bergen,  with  about  26,000  inhabitants,  is  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  the  Lofoden  fishery. 

Denmark. 

Denmark  is  one  of  the  oldest  States  in  Europe.  It 
consists  of  a  peninsula  projecting  towards  the  southern 
coast  of  Norway,  and  comprises  Jutland  and  several 
important  islands  near  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 

At  no  very  remote  period  the  peninsula  was  largelj- 
covered  with  forests,  and  wolves  were  common  and  in 
great  numbers. 

The  coasts  of  Denmark  are  in  some  places  low,  and 
dykes  are  necessar\'  to  keep  out  the  waters  of  the  sea. 

To  its  peninsular  form  its  climates  owe  their  humidity, 
evenness,  and  mildness. 

The  government  is  a  monarchy,  and  the  religion  of 
the  people  is  Lutheran. 

The  Duchies  of  Schleswig  Holstein  and  Lauenberg 
once  belonged  to  Denmark,-  but  were  wrested  from  her 
in  1864.  and  in  1860  ceded  to  Prussia. 

Copenhagen,  the  capital  of  Denmark,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  160,000,  is  an  elegant  and  important  city.  Its 
University  library  contains  100,000  volumes. 

It  was  on  his  way  to  attack  Copenhagen  in  the  winter 
of  1658,  that  Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  against  the  warn- 
ings of  his  ablest  generals,  marched  his  whole  army, 
horse,  foot,  and  artillery,  over  the  frozen  Baltic. 

Elsinore,  on  the  Danish  Sound,  is  an  important  naval 
station. 


LESSOJV    LXIV. 

Russia     (Map,  p.  124.) 

1.  Russia  inchides  all  of  northern  Europe  not  here- 
tofore treated,  and  the  whole  of  northern  Asia. 

Russia  in  Europe  lies  chiefly  between  the  parallels  of 
45'  and  70°,  and  Russia  in  Asia,  between  those  of  50° 
and  78°.  In  the  two  continents  it  embraces  an  area  far 
greater  than  that  of  the  United  States. 

Its  climates  are  cold  and  inhospitable  ;  its  geograph- 
ical position  is  such  as  to  exclude  most  of  its  inhabitants 
from  navigation  and  the  pursuits  of  the  sea. 

Throughout  the  vast  area  included  within  the  domains 
of  this  empire  only  five  cities  of  100,000  inhabitants 
and  upward  are  to  be  found. 

16 


2.  The  chief  industries  of  Russia  are  connected  with 
the  land  rather  than  with  the  sea.  They  are  mining,  agri- 
cultural, and  manufacturing.  But  the  productions  of 
her  factories  are  intended  chiefly  for  home  consumption. 

S.  Russia  in  B^irope  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  level 
country,  sloping  as  the  rivers  flow.  (See  Orographic 
View.)  That  part  of  it  which  lies  south  of  60°,  and 
borders  on  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas,  is  agriculturally 
very  rich  ;  the  soil  is  black  and  warm.  It  forms  the 
country  known  as  the  "Black  Lands  of  Russia,"  and 
resembles  the  prairies  of  Minnesota  and  other  Western 
States.  This  section  of  Europe  is  very  fertile  ;  the  soil 
is  inexhaustible,  yielding  annually,  without  manure, 
two  crops,  a  green  crop  and  a  cereal.  Its  wines  are 
also  very  fine. 

4.  This  part  of  Russia,  with  European  Turkey,  and  Eastern  Asia,  is  the 
granary  of  Europe.  The  corn  from  tliese  regions  meets  in  the  marl^ets  of 
Great  Britain  and  Western  Europe  the  grain  and  breadstufFs  from  tlie  United 
States,  and  thus  tlie  farmers  of  the  far  West  find  in  tlie  markets  of  London — 
wliich  is  the  greatest  grain-market  in  the  woild— competition  from  tlie  far 
East. 

Russia  also  sends  to  Great  Britain  hemp,  tallow, 
leather,  skins,  and  furs  in  large  quantities. 

J.  Russia  has  the  largest  population  of  any  State  in 
Christendom.  In  Europe  and  Asia  together  she  has  a 
population  of  77,000.000,  and  an  area  of  7,862,585 
square  miles.  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States,  exercise  dominion  over  one-third  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  one-fourth  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  English  possessions  lie  cliiefly  in  warm  climates, 
the  American  in  temperate,  and  the  Russian  in  cold. 
Russia  has  but  fourteen  cities  of  more  than  50,000  in- 
habitants ;  thus  indicating  that  her  peoi)le  live  rather 
by  tillage  and  i)asturage,  than  by  manufacturing  and 
ocean  commerce. 

St.  Petersburg,  Uie  capital,  has  a  popiiladon  of  550,000;  Moscow  360,000; 
Warsaw  245,000;  Odi'ssa  120,000;   Rig:i  100,000. 

6*.  The  Steppes  of  Russia  extend  along  its  southern 
borders  all  the  way  from  the  foot  of  the  Carpathian 
Mountains,  in  Europe,  to  the  borders  of  China,  in  Asia. 
This  is  a  prairie  countrj^,  and  but  for  its  distance  from 
the  sea  and  its  summer  droughts,  would  be  as  smiling 
as  ours  is. 

7.  Russia  has  a  considerable  inland  trade  with  the 
bordering  States  both  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  it  is  car- 
ried on  by  caravans,  and  disposed  of  by  means  of  fiiirs, 
the  most  famous  of  which  are  held  at  Nijnii  {mzK-ni) 
Novgorod.  Merchants  from  China,  Mongolia,  India,  Af- 
ghanistan, Persia,  Turkey,  and  from  all  parts  of  Europe 
attend  this  fair.     The  annual  concourse  ranges  between 


/^ 


122 


RUSSIA.— FINLAND. 


two  and  three  hundred  thousand  merchants  with  their 
followers. 


RUSSIAN     TRAVBLIKHS. 


<S.  Russia  is  rich  in  minerals  of  all  sorts,  from  gold, 
silver,  platinum,  and  precious  stones  down.  There  is  no 
malachite  more  exquisitel}^  beautiful  than  that  of  Russia. 

0.  Until  lately  about  one-third  of  the  people  in  Rus- 
sia were  slaves,  called  serfs.  But  the  present  emperor, 
yielding  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  has  emancii)ated  them. 

10.  Moscow  is  celebrated  for  a  vast  structure — comi^rising  forts,  barracks, 
palaces,  churches,  and  cathedrals  all  in  a  group — called  the  Kremlin. 

It  has  also  been  made  famous  bj'  Napoleon  I.,  who,  in  1812,  marched  his 
grand  army  into  Moscow  for  winter-quarters.  Tlie  inhabitiints  of  tlio  city 
set  fire  to  their  houses,  the  whole  place  was  laid  in  ashes,  and  the  invading 
ai-my  was  compelled  to  make  a  winter  retreat,  and  was  completely  destroyed. 

Moscow   lies   four  hundred   and    eighty-five   miles  ^ _. 

south  by  east  of  St.  Petersburg.  Peter  the  Great  made 
the  journey  in  winter,  in  an  open  sledge,  in  forty-si.x 
hours;  the  Emperor  Alexander  more  than  once  made 
it  in  forty-two  hours ;  the  express  railway  train  now 
accomplishes  it  in  twenty-two  hours. 

The  Suez  Canal  gives  Russia  a  new  route  to  "the 
East."  Tue  Oilessa  Company  has  already  80  steamers 
in  thai  trade. 

Kazan  has  a  populalioii  of  58.000. 

Sebaslopol,  famous  for  its  siege  and  capture  b}'  the 
French,  assisted  by  the  English,  in  the  Crimean  war, 
1854,  has  a  reduced  population. 

Warsaw,  the  ancient  capital  of  Po- 
land, is  the  emporium  of  trade  for  Rus- 
sian Poland. 

Archangel,  with  a  population  of  20,000 
inhabitants,  is  the  great  shipping  port  of 
Northern  Russia,  as  Odessa,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  is  of  Southern  Russia. 

Archangel  is  situated  close  to  a  geo- 
graphical line  which  marks  the  northern 
limit  of  cereal  and  garden  culture  ;  all 


its  grain  and  vegetable  supplies,  as  well  as  fodder  for 
cattle,  are  transported  from  a  distance. 

Astrakhan,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  45,000,  is  an  island 
city  on  the  Volga  river. 
Through  it  passes  the  trade 
of  Russia  with  Western 
Asia. 

The  Russians  adopt  the 
Greek  form  of  worship,  and 
the  emperor  is  the  head  of 
the  Church. 

11.  The  government  is 
an  absolute  monarch3^  It 
has  no  constitution,  no  ])ar- 
liaraent,  no  congress. 

12.  The  inhabitants  con- 
sist of  many  races,  but  the 
majority      are       Sclavonic, 

though  tlie  Teutonic,  the  Finnish,  and  the  Tiiiki.sli  races 
are  represented  among  them. 

Ethnography  will  teach  you  the  early  history,  types,  and  laces  of  man- 
kind. From  it,  when  you  study  Physical  Geography,  yon  will  learn  that  tlic 
Sclavonic  race  includes  the  Ku.ssians,  the  Poles,  and  tlie  inhabitants  of 
Croatia,  Servia,  Illyria.  The  Teutonic  family  includes  the  (Jernians,  Eng- 
lisli,  Dutcii,  Flemings,  Danes,  Swedes,  and  Norwegians.  French,  Italians, 
Spaniards,  and  Portuguese  make  up  the  Latin  race. 

13.  Finland  is  a  dependency  of  the  Russian  Empire, 
and  is  a  Grand  Duchy  Its  interior  is  a  vast  plateau. 
The  Governor-General,  representing  the  Emperor  of 
Russia,  resides  at  Helsingfors. 


't/AMHSr 


/ 


STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    EUROPE. 


LESSOjY   lxv. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  Europe,    (pp.  124, 125.) 

Boiandaries. 

Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  and  meridians  of  longitude  does 
Europe  lie?— What  natural  boundaiy  has  it  on  the  north?— On  the  east?— 
On  the  south?— On  the  west?— What,  on  the  southeast?— What  grand  divi- 
sion on  the  east  ?— What,  on  the  south  ?— How  do  the  penmsulas  of  Europe 
generally  project? 

Bound  France.— Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  does  it  lie  ?— How  is 
it  separated  from  England ?— How,  from  Italy? -How,  from  Spain?— Bound 
''the  Peninsula"  (Spain  and  Portugal).— Bound  Portugal.— Bound  Italy— 
Oi-eecc.— Bound  Switzerland.— Bound  Norway— Lapland— The  Empue  of 
Austria. -Between  what  natural  and  political  boundaries  does  Russia  in 
Europe  lie?-B()und  Russia  in  Asia.— Bound  Turkey-Italy-England- 
Belgium— Greece. 

Where  is  Holland  ?-Denmark  ?-Wales  ?-Irelaud  ?-Iceland  ?-Hano- 
ver?— Saxony?— Bavaria  ?— Bohemia  V -Hungary  ?— Roumania  ?— Roume- 
lia  ?— Servia  ? 

Mountains. 

What  great  range  of  mountains  travei-ses  a  large  part  of  Europe?— What 
mountains  on  the  east?— Wliat  mountains  northwest  of  the  Black  Sea?— 
What  mountains  lie  northeast  of  the  Black  Sea?— Point  out  the  Balkan 
Mountains.— Where  are  the  Apennines  ?— The  Pyrenees  ?— What  mountains 
are  in  "  the  Peninsula"  of  Spain  and  Portugal  ?— Are  there  any  mountains  in 
Norway  and  Sweden  ?— Give  the  general  direction  of  the  mountains  of 
Europe.— Are  the  mountains  of  Italy  on  the  east  or  west  side  of  that  penin- 
sula ?-Where  are  the  Jura  Mountains?-  Carpathian  ?-Where  is  Mount 
Etna?— Mount  Vesuvius?—  St.  Bernard  ?— Mont  Blanc V— How  high  is  Mont 
Blanc?  (See  bottom  of  Mercator's  Map  of  the  World.)— What  country  is  on 
the  top  of  the  great  watershed  of  Europe  drained  by  tlie  Rhine,  Rlione, 
Danube,  and  Po?— Where  are  the  Alps?— What  is  the  higliesl  mountain  in 
Europe?    (Refer  to  the  Orographic  View  of  Central  Europe.) 


123 


Rivers. 

Name  the  rivers  of  France,  and  tell  where  they  rise  and  where  they  cniiHy.— 
(The  Loire  (length,  645  miles),  the  longest  river  of  France  is  about  the  length 
of  the  Cumberland  River  in  the  United  States.)  Wliat  two  rivers  unite  to 
form  the  Gironde  ?— Is  any  part  of  France  drained  by  the  Rhine  ? 

AVhat  five  rivers  of  Spain  flow  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?— Describe  llic 
Ell)e— The  Rhine— The  Weser.— Trace  the  Vistula— The  Oder— The  Dwina 
— Tlie  Dneiper— Tlie  Volga— The  Don— The  Dneister— The  Po— The  Rhone 
—The  Seine.  The  Seine  rum  throiifjh  the  City  of  Pa?'w.— The  course  of  the 
Danube.— Which  waterslied  is  the  largest,  that  whicli  is  drained  into  the 
Baltic,  or  that  which  is  drained  into  the  Nortli  Sea '?— How  far  is  the  Rhine 
navigable  ?    Am.  to  ScbafTliausen,  in  the  norlli  of  Switzerland. 

Note.— The  Elbe  and  Rhine  drain  143,000  square  miles  ;  tlie  Seine,  Loire, 
and  Garonne,  110,000  sq.  m. ;  the  Douro,  Tagus,  Gaudiana,  and  Guadal- 
qnivcr,  lir,,000  sq.  m. ;  the  Tiiames,  6,500  stj.  m.  ;  the  Severn,  5,500  sq.  m. ; 
tlie  Neva,  Vistula,  Oder,  Dwina,  and  Niomcn,  .^05,000  sq.  m. ;  the  El)ro, 
Rlione,  and  Po,  110,000  sq.  m.  ;  the  Danube,  Dniester,  Dnieper,  and  Don, 
791,000  sq.  m. 

The  Dnnuhe  is,  of  all  these,  the  largest,  runninr/  1000  miles  in  a  direct  line 
from  its  chief  tryiirce. 


Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Bays. 

Where  is  the  Adriatic  Sea  ?  —  Ai-chipelago  ?  —  The  Black  Sea  ?— The  Sea 
of  Azov  ?— The  Sea  of  Marmora  ?— The  Caspian  Sea  ?— The  White  Sea  ?— The 
Baltic?— The  North  Sea?— The  Mediterranean?  The  Mediterranean  is  a 
warm,  tideless  sea.     Tlie  countries  along  its  border  enjoy  an  insular  climate. 

Note.— The  reason  the  temperature  of  the  sea  is  not  so  changeable  or 
easily  affected  as  that  of  the  land,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  water  has 
great  capacity  for  heat;  it  can,  with  but  slight  change  of  temperature,  hold 
much  more  heat  than  the  air  can.  Thus  the  heat  that  a  cubic  foot  of 
water  loses  in  cooling  1°  will  warm  100°  cubic  feet  of  atmosphere  1°. 

Where  is  the  Gulf  of  Lions?— Of  Genoa?— Name  all  the  Gulfs  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Europe.— Where  is  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  ?— Gulf  of  Fmland  ? 
—Gulf  of  Riga  ?— Where  is  the  Bay  of  Biscay  ? 


Straits  and  Lakes. 

Where  is  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  ?  The  water  of  the  Mediterranean  is  la/rgely 
absorbed  by  tlie  sun,  by  tlie  process  of  evaporation,  and,  to  supply  this  loss,  there  is 
an  indraught  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  through  tlie  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  forming 
sometimes  a  strong  current  which  sailing)  vessels  can  hardly  stem. 

Where  is  the  Strait  of  Messina  ?  In  the  Strait  of  Messina  are  the  famous 
rocks  of  Scylla  and  the  whirlpool  of  Charybdis,  which  were  the  dread  of  ancient 
manners.— ^hai-Q  is  the    Bosporus ?— What  does  it  connect? 

Note. — In  the  Strait  of  Messina  the  fishery  of  the  sword-fish  is  of  impor- 
tance. The  men  of  Messina  and  Reggio  join  in  with  a  great  number  of  boats, 
carrying  brilliant  flambeaux,  and  use  three-pronged  harpoons.  The  sword- 
fish  is  from  five  to  six  feet  long,  is  terribly  armed,  and  often  perforates  the 
copper  and  hull  of  sliips  with  its  weapon.  A  miserable  little  parasite,  how- 
ever, sometimes  burrows  beneath  the  flesh  of  the  sword-fish,  and  drives  it 
mad  witli  pain,  till  it  dies. 


THE     SWORD-FISH. 


Where  is  Lake  Lucerne  .-Lake  Wener  ?-Lake  Ladoga  ?-Onega  J 


Islands  and  Capes. 

Where  are  the  Lofoden  Isles  ?-The  Balearic  Islands  ?-Where  is  Sar, 
dinia  ?-Corsica  ?  -  Sicily  ?-Malta  ?-Candia  ?-Cyprus  ?-Rhodes  ?-What 
Islands  are  in  the  Baltic  Sea  ?— The  Scilly  Islands  ? 

Where  is  Cape  Matapan?-The  Naze  ?-Cape  St.  Vincent ?-Cape  Finis- 
tpvre ?— North  Cape?— What  is  the  most  southern  cape  of  Europe?— What  is 
the  most  eastern  ?— What  the  most  northern  cape  ? 


Meridiaa    0     of  Greanwich 


-,    Ir     (' 


126 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS    ON    EUROPE. 


Harbors  and  Cities. 

Name  some  of  the  harbors  on  the  Mediterraneau,  and  point  them  out — 
Also,  on  the  Atlantic — On  the  Baltic  and  its  greai  estuaries. — Name  tlie 
Capital  of  every  country  in  Europe,  and  state  how  it  is  situated  with  regard 
to  the  chief  seaport  of  that  country. — What  are  the  chief  towns  of  France  ? — 
Of  Prussia?— of  Holland  ?— of  Belgium  ?— of  Switzerland  ?— of  Turkey?— of 
Austria  ? — of  Italy  ? — of  Spain  ? — of  Portugal  ? — of  Norway  and  Sweden  ? — of 
Denmark? — Point  out  Paris — Nijni-Novgorod — St.  Petersburg — Hammor- 
fest — Athens — Corinth — Vienna — Rome — Cronstadt  —  Sebastopol  —  Antwerp 
— Geneva — Amsterdam — Stockholm — Copenhagen — Berlin — Basle. 


Distances,  Rentes  of  Travel,  and.  Trade. 

Wliat  town  in  France  is  opposite  Dover,  in  England  ? — Distance  between 
the  two  places? — How  far  is  Paris  from  the  sea? — How  far  and  which  way 
do  you  go  from  Toulouse  to  Calais? — To  Marseille?— To  Nice? — To  Cher- 
bourg ? — From  Calais  to  Marseille  ? — From  Havre  to  Brest  ? — From  Bor- 
deaux to  Nantes  ? — How  would  you  go  from  Paris  to  Geneva  ? — How  far  is 
it  from  Berlin  to  Vienna?— Tell  the  distance  from  the  Hague,  by  water, 
to  Schafifhauscn. — How  would  you  go  from  Hamburg  to  St.  Petersburg  ? — 
From  Venice  to  Florence  ? — From  Geneva  to  Rome  ? — From  Athens  to  Con- 
stantinople ? — To  Sebastopol  ? 

How  far  is  it  from  Malta  to  Alexandria,  Egypt  ? — From  Malta  to  Paris  ? — 
From  Bremen  to  Ilamnicrfest? — From  Clierbourg  to  Copenhagen? — From 
St.  Petersburg  to  Nijni-Novgorod?— From  St.  Petersbm-g  to  Constantinople  ? 
— From  Antwerp  to  Madrid? 


Miscellaneous. 

Can  you  find  the  Valdai  Hills  ?  They  lie  between  St.  Petersburg  and. 
Moscow. — The  Sea  of  Azov  ? — The  Straits  of  Bonifacio  ? 

The  Alpine  peak  of  the  Matterhorn  ?  It  is  a  boundary  between  Switzer- 
land and  Italy. — By  referring  to  the  text,  can  you  point  out  the  Mont  Cenis 
Tunnel  ?— Where  is  the  Island  of  Zante  ?— Elba  ? 

Can  you  locate  the  Puy  de  Dome  ?  (Puy  means  peak).  The  Puy  de  Dome 
is  in  the  centre  of  the  great  volcanic  region  of  Auvergne,  near  Viviers,  in  France. 
— (It  was  by  the  aid  of  this  mountain  that  the  two  French  philosophers, 
named  Perier,  first  discovered  that  the  air  had  weight.  They  found  by  actual 
experiment  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  greater  at  tfie  foot  than  it 
is  ill  the  top  of  this  mountain,  and  thus  the  barometer  was  invented.) 

[The  Barometer  is  the  instrumejit  employed  to  measure  the 
height  of  a  column  of  mercury  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  From  this  height  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  is 
ascertained.  The  fundamental  principle  of  the  barometer  cannot 
be  better  illustrated  than  by  the  following  experiment.  Take  a 
glass  tube,  33  inches  in  length,  open  at  one  end ;  fill  it  with  mer-' 
cury,  and,  closing  the  open  end  vrith  the  finger,  invert  it,  and 
plunge  the  open  end  into  a  bowl  also  containing  mercury.  The 
column  will  fall  in  the  tube  to  about  30  inches  above  the  surface 
of  the  mercury  in  the  bowl,  if  the  experiment  be  made  near  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  fluid  is  upheld  in  the  tube  by  the  air  outside 
of  it  pressing  on  the  mercury  in  the  bowl ;  and  since  the  one  thus 
balances  the  other,  it  is  evident  that  the  mercurial  column  will 
serve  as  an  accurate  indicator  of  the  varying  pressure  of  air. 
The  space  in  the  tube  above  the  mercury  is  one  of  the  nearest 
approaches  to  a  vacuum  that  can  h".  made.  It  is  called  the  tubs,  and 
Torricellian  ■oacmt.m.'] 


Is  Switzeriand  nearest  to  the  Black  Sea,  the  Mediterranean,  or  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  ?— Where  is  the  Peloponnesus  ?    (See  Greece.) 

Where  is  the  Hospice  of  St.  Bernard  ?— By  reference  to  the  text,  point  out 
the  great  grain  country  of  Europe.— How  do  the  Germans  get  to  tlie  sea  ?— 
How  does  inland  trade  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Peking  in  China,  go  on  ? 
Ans.  It  passes  through  Kiachta,  t/ie  centre  of  the  tea  trade  between  Jlussia  in 
Europe  and  Ghina.~The  mercluindise  w  transported  on  the  backs  of  camels  from 
Peking  to  Kiuchta  all  tlie  way  across  tJie  desert  of  Mongolia  ;  and  thence  it  is 
carried  to  Russia  by  river  transportation  in  summer,  and  in  winter  by  sledges 
drawn  by  dogs  or  reindeer. 


Review    Questions. 

Give  some  account  of  the  political  geography  of  Europe  an9  its  social 
features— Its  population. — Which  arc  tlie  maritime  nations  of  Europe  ?— De- 
scribe some  of  the  natural  peculiarities  of  Europe— Climates  and  productions 
—Nationalities.— Mention  the  chief  points  of  interest  about  Paris.  Lyons, 
Marseille,  Bordeaux,  Rheims,  and  Nantes. 

[Questions  from  Lesson  LV.  to  LX.  are  found  at  end  of  each  lesson.] 

Lesson  LX. — 1.  Give  the  general  geography  of  Austria,  Hungary,  and 
European  Turkej'.  2.  To  what  races  do  the  inhabitants  of  Austria  belong  ? 
— Describe  the  mines  of  Austria. — What  is  said  of  Bohemia? — Of  the  cities  of 
Austria  and  Hungary,  and  their  population  ? — Tlie  nobility  ?  :j.  What  is 
said  of  the  Turkish  empire  and  its  divisions? — Of  Constantinople? — Of 
Adrianople  ? — Salonica  ? 

[Note. — In  mentioning  large  cities,  give  population.] 

Lesson  LXl.—l.  General  geography  of  Greece  and  Italy,  Spain  and 
Portugal  ?— Their  aggregate  population  ?    2.  Cities  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  ? 

3.  The  AUiambra?  4.  Gibraltar?  5.  Alpine  Passes?  «,  Mont  Cenis 
Tunnel?  7.  Staples?  8.  What  is  said  of  Spain  and  Portugal? — Their 
cities  ?  .9.  What  is  said  of  Italy  ?—  What  does  it  contain  ?— What  is  said  of 
Rome  and  other  Italian  cities? — San  Marino?  10.  Describe  Greece  and 
its  cities. 

Lesson  LXII. — 1.  General  geography  of  Germany  and  the  smaller 
States?    2.  Hamburg  and  Bremen  ?    3.  Intellectual  character  of  Germans  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  Prussia? — Berlin? — What  changes  were  wrought  by  the 
war  of  1866  ?— German  cities?  5.  What  is  said  of  Saxony  ?  (i.  Of  Belgium 
and  its  cities  ?     7.  Of  Holland,  and  its  people  and  cities  ? 

Lesson  LXIII. — 1.  What  is  said  of  Switzerland  ?  2.  Mont  Blanc  and 
its  height  ? — Other  peaks  and  glaciers  ? — Hospice  of  St.  Bernard  ?  3,  Swiss 
exports? — Point  out  on  the  Orographic  View  of  Central  'Ei\Tope,u)ithont  the 
use  of  tlie  numbers,  the  principal  cities  of  Central  Europe.  4.  What 
is  said  of  Sweden  and  Norway? — Culiivalion  of  soil  ? — Sun  at  midnight? — 
Industries? — Religion? — Lapland? — What  is  said  of  Hammorfest? — Its  lati- 
tude?— The  cities  of  Sweden  and  Norway? — Capital?  5.  What  is  said  of 
Denmark  ? — Its  climates  ? — Its  cities  ? 

Lesson  LXIV. — 1.  What  are  the  limits  of  Russia  ?  2.  Chief  industries? 
3.  "  Black  Lands." — 4=.  Great  grain-country  of  Europe  ? — Russian  exports  ? 
o.  Populationof  Russia  and  its  chief  cities?  6".  Steppes  of  Russia?  7.  Inland 
trade? — Fairs  of  Nijni-Novgorod  ?  8,  Russian  minerals  ?  .9.  Serfs?  10. 
Moscow  and  other  Russian  cities?  11.  Goverament?  12.  Races?  13. 
What  is  said  of  Finland  ? — Helsingfors? — What  is  the  title  of  the  chief  mag- 
istrate of  Finland  ? 


AblA. 


127 


FLORA    AND     FAUNA     OF     ASIA. 


LESSON    LXri, 

Asia.     (Map,  p.  138.) 

1.  Asiatic  Races. —  We  now  pass  from  the  States  of 
Europe  to  the  oldest  nations  of  the  earth — from  yellow 
hair,  blue  eyes,  and  fair  skins,  to  raven  locks,  black 
eyes,  and  all  shades  of  complexion  ; — from  the  tawny 
and  yellow  to  brown  and  black  ;— from  Christians  to 
the  followers  of  Mahomet,  or  Buddha,  or  Brahma,  or 
Zoroaster:  these  are  the  popular  sects  of  Asia. 


DOMESTIC     LIFB     IN     JAPAK. 


2.  I*opahiflon. — The  most  populous  empires  in  the 
world  are  in  Asia,  but,  though  they  have  extensive  sea- 
coasts,  skirted  with  beautiful  islands  and  embellished 
with  deep  bays  and  capacious  harbors,  there  is  not  one 
that  has  risen  to  importance  as  a  maritime  or  naval  power. 

Men  are  respected  according  to  their  virtues,  but  a  nation  is  regarded  witli 
respect  by  her  fellows  and  treated  with  consideration,  according  to  her 
physical  strength  and  the  prowess  of  her  sons. 

Without  a  navy,  no  nation  can  make  her  power  felt,  or  spread  her  infln- 
encc  across  the  sea.  She  may  make  bordering  nations,  and  those  that  she 
can  reach  by  land,  feel  and  confess  her  martial  energy ;  but  it  is  quite  different 
■•vith  those  whom  she  has  to  pass  the  seas  to  reach. 

Hence  China,  with  her  majestic  sea-front, 
and  a  population  exceeding  that  of  all  the  na- 
tions of  Europe  combined,  has  never  been  able 
to  command  the  respect  abroad  that  is  accorded 
even  to  a  third-class  naval  power. 

3.  Political  Geoff ra2>hy. — Part  of  the  do- 
mains, both  of  Eussia  and  Turkey,  are  in  Asia. 
Not  counting  these,  there  are  in  Asia  but  six 
States  that  are  recognized  as  free,  sovereign, 
and  independent  nations. 

These  are  Persia,  Siam,  Anam,  Burmah, 
China,  and  Japan.  They  are  absolute  monar- 
chies. With  their  dependencies  they  embrace 
an  area  of  5,849,767  square  miles,  which  is 
occupied  by  a  population  of  537,000,0(10. 

The  rest  of  this  continent  embraces  an  area 


128 


CHINA. 


of  11,500,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  268,600,- 
000,  consisting  partly  of  possessions  that  the  maritime 
powers  of  Europe  have  acquired  by  conquest :  as  India, 
which  belongs  to  England  ;  the  Island  of  Java,  and 
otlier  islands,  which  belong  to  Holland  ;  the  Philippine 
Islands,  to  Spain  ;  much  of  Cochin  China,  to  France, 
etc.,  etc. 

Or  it  consists  of  districts,  such  as  Arabia,  Turkes- 
tan, Thibet,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan,  etc.,  etc..  that 
have  no  responsible  government,  and  are  divided  into 
tribes,  hordes,  and  other  factions,  which  do  not  pretend 
to  be  clothed  with  the  dignity  of  national  sovereignty. 

4.  llodes  of  Life  and  Civilization. — Most  of 
these  hordes  and  factions  lead  a  sort  of  half-savage, 
half-civilized  life — tending  their  flocks,  robbing  their 
neighbors,  and  plundering  the  helpless. 

Parts  both  of  Asia  and  Africa  were  inhabited  by  civilized  people  long  be- 
fore Europe  and  America  were.  Almost  all  the  great  events  recorded  in  the 
Bible  took  place  in  Asia. 

5.  Woman. — In  these  lands  woman  is  degraded.  In 
parts  of  India  the  practice  of  widow-burning  is  still  con- 
tinued ;  that  is,  when  the  husband  dies,  his  \vives,  for 
he  often  has  many,  are  burned  at  his  funeral. 

0.  The  Grand  Plateau  of  Asia. — If  you  will  study 
the  Orographic  View  of  Central  Asia  (p.  13.3),  mark 
where  the  rivers  rise,  and  note  the  direction  in  which 
they  flow,  you  will  see,  by  the  natural  drainage  of  the 
land,  that  there  is  an  extensive  inland  region  which  has 
no  sea-drainage  and  but  few  watercourses. 

This  is  the  grand  plateau  where  the  Steppes  of  Asia 
are,  and  the  great  Desert  of  G-obi  is  on  it.  The  highest 
land  in  the  world  is  here. 

Among  the  peaks  of  the  Himalaju,  which  form  the  southern  rim  of  this 
great  inland  basin,  stands  the  majestic  Gaurisankar,  also  called  Mount 
Everest,  towering  more  than  29,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  .sea. 


LESSOJV  Lxrii. 

The  Asiatic  Powersr 

China. 

1.  China  is  the  oldest  and  the  most  densely 
populated  empire  in  the  world.  "With  an  area, 
including  adjoining  dependencies,  of  4,095,000 
square  miles,  it  now  contains,  by  my  estimates, 
a  population  of  480.000,000. 

The  land  is  filled  to  overflowing  with  peoj)le. 
Its  civilization  dates  from  time  immemorial.  The 
country  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation  and  im- 


provement, to  which  Europe  did  not  approximate,  even 
at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  to  which 
she  has  not  yet  attained. 

2.  The  most  famous  works  in  China  are  its  canal,  700 
miles  in  length,  constructed  nearly  one  thousand  years 
ago,  and  its  celebrated  wall,  1200  miles  in  length,  from  15 
to  30  feet  high,  and  so  thick  that  six  men  on  horseback 
can  ride  abreast  upon  it. 

It  was  designed  as  a  work  (\f  defence  against  the  Tartars,  and  was  com- 
pleted upwards  of  two  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

3.  The  Chinese  are  an  industrious,  patient,  economi- 
cal, and  ingenious  people. 

Of  all  the  industrial  pursuits,  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  most  honored  by 
the  Chinese ;  and,  to  do  it  homage,  the  Emperor,  with  his  nobles,  and  in  the 
presence  of  his  subjects,  annually  puts  his  hand  to  the  ])lovv  and  runs  a 
furrow. 

4.  You  ought  now  to  know  enough  about  climates 
and  geograi)hy  to  tell,  merely  by  looking  at  the  map, 
that  the  sea-slopes  of  this  country  are  well  watered,  and 
that  therefore  it  has  climates  and  soil  adapted  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  all  the  great  stai)les  that  are  grown  between 
the  same  parallels  of  latitude  in  America. 

5.  Tea  is  the  great  agricultural  staple  in  China.  It 
will  grow  equally  well  in  our  Southern  States,  and  it  is 
not  cultivated  there,  simply  because  labor  is  scarce  and 
can  be  more  profitably  employed  in  other  branqhes  of 
industry. 

Tea  is  produced  by  labor  in  China  that  costs  only  a  cent  or  two  a  daj-, 
and  none  of  the  great  agricultural  staples  of  commerce  require  more  labor 
than  tea.  The  leaves  not  only  require  to  be  gathered  by  hand,  and  one  by 
one,  but  each  one  has  afterward  to  be  rolled  up  separately,  also  by  hand. 

They  make  great  use  of  the  bamboo.  They  build  houses  and  bridges  of 
it.  They  use  it  as  food  wlien  it  is  young,  and  they  make  mats,  furniture,  and 
liousehold  utensils  of  it  when  it  is  matured. 

The^-  glow  and  manufacture  silk,  cotton,  and  calico.  Every  available  foot 
of  land  in  China  is  cultivated,  and  for  the  want  of  dwelling  space,  many 


CHINEBB     RAT-OATOBKB. 


JAPAN. 


129 


thousands  of  people  live  in  boats,  arranged  in  streets  on  the  water,  as  houses 
are  in  a  city. 

The  Chinese  are  extensively  engaged  in  sea-fisheries,  and  their  chief  article 
of  food  is  rice. 

The  internal  commerce  of  Cliina  is  immense,  and  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  its  water  communication  througli  canals  and  navigable  rivers.  In  the 
mountain  districts  donkeys  are  used,  and  in  crossing  the  deserts,  the  camel. 

6.  Their  religion  is  Buddhism.  The  government  is  an  absolute  mon- 
archy, and  the  laws  are  severe.  Their  country  is  the  "  Celestial  Empire," 
and  their  Emperor,  according  to  them,  is  of  such  high  descent  as  to  be  brother 
of  tlie  sun  and  moon. 

Tlie  geographical  information  of  the  Chinese  does  not  extend  beyond 
their  own  countrj',  which  they  maintain  is  the  centre  of  the  world,  and  they 
liave  the  greatest  contempt  for  all  foreigners,  whom  they  call  "  outside  bar- 
barians." 

7.  Their  domestic  animals  are  generally  of  the  scavenger  sort,  such  as 
swine,  dogs,  ducks,  geese,  and  poultry.  They  are  very  poorly  off  for  sheep, 
horses,  and  horned  cattle. 

8.  Their  cities  are  compactly  built  and  the  streets  are  narrow.  Their 
temples  and  pagodas  are  very  grand,  and  enhance  the  beauty  of  many  a 
landscape. 

Rebellion,  revolution,  and  civil  war  have  been  raging  in  China  for  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  centuiy. 


We  have  a  valuable  commerce  with  China. 

Nanking,  population  300,000,  once  an  imperial  city,  is  on  the  Yangtse- 
kiang  river,  or  "Child  of  the  Ocean." 

Shanghai  has  an  immense  commerce  and  a  population  of  300,000. 

Peking,  the  capital  of  the  Empire,  about  106  miles  from  the  sea,  with 
1,650,000  inhabitants,  is  in  latitude  40°  north. 

There  are  three  cities  in  China  on  the  Yangtse-kiang  so  connected  with 
each  other,  that  they  may  be  said  to  form  one  city,  under  the  name  of  Hoang- 
Chou,  or  Hankow,  with  a  population  of  nearly  8,000,000,  the  largest  known 
collection  of  human  beings  in  so  small  a  compass. 

Mongolia 

Is  a  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  It  is  an  arid  and  chilly  country,  mostly 
desert.  The  Mongols  are  nomadic  by  necessity,  for  their  soil  is  too  poor  to 
sustain  their  flocks  with  grass  but  for  a  short  period  of  time. 


UONOOLIAN      EMIOnANT. 


17 


LEssoj\r  Lxriii, 

Japan. 

1.  The  Enii)iro  of  Japan  consists  of  four 
large  islands,  viz.,  Niphon,  Yesso,  Kiu- 
siu,  and  Sikolce,  and  3,850  smaller  islands. 
Its  area  is  about  one-fourth  larger  than 
that  of  the  British  islands.  It  is  separated 
from  Corea  and  the  continent  of  Asia  by 
the  Corean  Channel  and  the  Sea  of  Japan  : 
its  coasts  are  generally  bold  and  rocky  : 
it  has  an  inland  sea  of  great  beauty  and 
abounds  in  convenient  harbors. 

2.  Both  these  nations  have  opened  certain  of  their  ports, 
called  llie  "treaty  ports,"  to  foreign  trade  and  residents. 

These  free  ports  in  Japan  are  Nagasaki,  Hakodadi, 
Simoda,  Yedo,   Osaka,  Ilioga,  Niigata,  and  Kanagawa. 

The  honor  of  making  the  first  negotiations  which  led  to 
the  opening  of  Japanese  ports  to  the  commerce,  of  the  world, 
was  reserved  lor  Com.  Perry  and  the  naval  officers  of  the 
American  expedition  of  1853.  The  first  anU)assadors  ever 
sent  from  Japan  were  accredited  to  the  United  States  in 
1860.  A  large  trade  and  very  friendly  intercourse  have 
already  sprung  up  between  the  two  countries.  Not  less 
than  five  hundred  Japanese  students  have  come  (1872)  to 
the  United  States  to  be  educated. 

3.  The  Japanese  trace  their  history  by 
authentic  records  through  a  period  of  2,539 
years,  under  124  emperors,  who  have 
borne  the  title  of  Tenno  or  Mikado. 

For  tiie  last  000  years  the  Shiogoon  or  Tycoon  has,  as 
a  subordinate,  governed  the  empire  ;  but  since  the  revolu- 
tion of  1867,  the  Mikado  has  assumed  his  ancient  preroga- 
tives. The  influence  and  revenues  of  the  formerly  numer- 
ous and  powerful  feudal  lords  called  Daimios,  have  also 
been  greatly  modified  and  reduced. 

4.  The  Japanese  resemble  the  Chinese  in  appearance, 
though  they  are  a  finer-looking  nice  of  people. 

The  Japanese  have  a  literature,  and  writers  of  great 
antiquity  and  repute,  and  used  the  art  of  printing  long 
before  it  was  invented  in  Europe. 


I30 


ANAM    AND    BURMAH.— SIAM. 


5.  They  have  severe  laws  and  singular  manners  and  customs.  When  a 
person  of  rank  offends  the  government  a  sword  is  sent  to  him,  and  he  is  then 
in  honor  bound  to  commit  suicide ;  tliis  is  the  Hara-wo-liiru. 

6.  Their  country  is  volcanic.  In  consequence  of  this  fact  their  dwellings 
are  generally  of  wood,  and  are  all  built  according  to  one  of  three  or  four 
plans;  so  that,  in  furnishing  a  house,  j'ou  have  only  to  go  to  the  upholsterer 
and  order  carpets  or  mats  for  a  house  of  one  of  these  patterns. 

7.  They  have  no  chairs,  sofas,  or  beds;  but,  using  their  clothes  for  cov- 
ering, thej^  sleep  on  the  floor,  npon  the  mats  on  which  they  sit  and  receive 
their  company  during  the  day. 

The  married  women  pluck  out  their  eyebrows,  use  pigments  to  turn  their 
teeth  black  and  their  lips  red,  and  powder  themselves  witli  rice  flour. 


RICE   S  T  O  IS  E-H  OUSES   AT   VEDO. 


The  usual  mode  of  travelling  is,  not  in  carriages  drawn  by  horses,  but  in 
either  iialanquins  or  norimons  borne  by  two  or  four  men. 

S.  The  cities  of  Japan  are  numerous.  Yedo,  or 
Tokio,  the  present  capital,  has  1,550,000  inhabitants. 

IMiako,  long  known  as  the  western  capital,  was  founded  in  a.d.  794,  and  has 
370,000  inhabitants.  Osaka,  tlie  port  for  Aliako,  is  accounted  by  its  inlialiit- 
ants  the  Paris  of  Jajian.  Yokahama  is  the  most  in)i)()rtant  port  of  the  em- 
pire. Hakodadi  is  tlie  principal  port  of  Yesso.  Nagasaki  is  the  port  wliere 
Europeans  were  first  permitted  to  locate  as  merchants. 

f>.  The  islands  of  Japan  lie  lu'twcen  the  parallels  of  30"  and  4.^",  and  their 
climates  rcsemlde  those  of  our  Atlantic  seaboard,  though  somewhat  milder, 
from  their  insular  position.  At  Yedo,  the  summer  temperature  ranges  fivm 
70°  to  90° ;  in  winter  the  snow  seldom  lies  long. 


In  addition  to  the  staples  that  are  cultivated  with  us  they  have  the  lacquer- 
tree,  from  which  they  get  the  gum  for  their  beautiful  Japan-ware  ;  the  wax- 
tree,  from  which  they  get  the  resin  for  their  candles — the  manufacture  of 
which  is  an  important  branch  of  industry ;  and  the  paper-mulberry,  ft-om 
whicli  they  manufacture  their  paper. 

Of  the  food-plants,  rice  is  most  extensively  cultivated — on  the  hill-sidea 
as  well  as  in  low,  marshy  regions,  as  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

10.  Japan  also,  like  China,  is  rich  in  mineral  re- 
sources. Both  the  base  and  precious  metals  are  found, 
and  coal  is  obtained  in  large  quantities. 

;|  3[ineral  springs,  both  cold  and  hot,  abound,  and  near  the 
island  of  Kiusiu  there  is  a^mall  islet  with  solfalaras  and  a 
burning  volcano,  wliich  answers  capitally  for  the  mariner  all 
the  inirposes  of  a  first-class  lighthouse. 

Foosiyama,  tlie  Parntissus  of  Japan,  with  its  majestic  c<me 
of  snow,  is  in  sight  from  the  capital.  It  is  an  extinct  volcano, 
14,177  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  exceedingl}'  granil  and  beau- 
tiful.    It  is  an  object  of  veneration  with  the  lower  orders. 

11'  The  Japanese  are  intelligent,  indu.s- 
trious,  and  ingenious.  Their  porcelain  and 
steel  manufactures  are  equal  to  any  iu  the 
world  ;  their  silk  and  other  fabrics  are  of 
superior  excellence  and  beauty ;  and  numei-- 
oiis  varieties  of  paper  are  made  by  tbem, 
nan}' of  which  arc  very  bcautifid  and  perfect. 

In  the  conwnercial  and  manufacturing  way,  the  Jap- 
anese hold  the  same  relation  to  the  neighboring  continent, 
Asia,  that  tiie  English  once  held  to  Europe. 

12.  The  opening  of  the  ports  of  Jaj)an 
and  China,  and  the  establishment  of  lines  of  steam- 
ships between  them  and  American  ports  on  the  Paci- 
fic, are  rendering  important  service  in  developing  a 
new  civilization  among  these  peoples. 

The  Japanese  Islands  have  a  dense  population,  estimated  at  35,000,000. 


LESSOJ^  LXIX. 

The  Empires  of  Anam   and    Birmah,  and  the  Kingdom 

of   Siam. 


RICB     CULTUBI 


1.  Siam,  Anam,  and  Bur- 
mah  form  part  of  a  penin- 
sula. They  lie  between  the 
parallels  of  10°  and  27° 
north.  They  occupy  the 
same  geographical  position, 
and  are  similar  in  their  re- 
ligious and  social  relations, 
and  therefore  we  consider 
that  their  industrial  pur- 
suits, except  as  Siam  may 
be  affected  by  the  presence 


INDIA. 


131 


of  the  sea.  and  the  existence  of  mineral  resources,  are 
the  same. 

2.  They  are  well  watered,  and,  being  mainly  within  the  tropics,  their  soil 
is  as  rich,  and  the  vegetation  as  rank,  as  light,  lipat,  and  moisture  can  make  it. 

3.  In  the  forests  here  are  found  the  taban,  the  tree  which  yields  gutta- 
percha, and  also  the  ti'ce  which  yields  the  pigment  we  call  gamboge.  Oil-trees, 
from  a  single  trunk  of  which  many  gallons  of  oil  may  be  extracted,  abound 
in  Burmah.    Peti'oleum-springs  are  common,  and  seem  inexhaustible. 

4.  We  now  approach  the  countries  where  the  elephant 
is  used  as  a  domestic  animal.  He  is  not  used  in  China, 
because  of  the  excessive  population  ;  the  ground  re- 
quired to  produce  food  for  one  elephant,  would  support 
several  men. 

0.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Buddhists  in  religion;  but  in  industry 
and  intelligence,  tliey  arc  very  inferior  to  their  neighbors,  both  on  the  right 
and  kft,  viz.,  the  Cliinese  on  tlie  one  side  and  the  Hindus  on  the  otlier. 

Bankok  is  the  cajjital  of  Siam ;  Mandelay,  on  the  Irrawaddy,  of  Burmah  ; 
and  Hue  (hicay),  of  Anam. 

6.  The  Mahay  peninsula,  which  stretches  down  still 
farther  toward  the  Equator,  is  divided  into  a  dozen 
petty  States,  thinly  inhabited  and  badly  governed. 
The  Malays  are  a  piratical  people,  dreaded  by  all  un- 
armed sailing  vessels. 

Singapore,  an  English  town,  is  at  the  end  of  this  long  peninsula.  It  is  a 
thriving  city,  witli  a  population  of  90,000.  The  Strait  of  Malacca,  on  which 
it  stands,  is  the  great  thoroughfare  for  the  sea-steamers  that  ply  between  India 
and  China;  and  it  is  a  half-way  house  in  navigation  of  much  importance. 
W^liat  Liverpool  is  to  cotton,  Singapore  is  to  tin. 

7.  These  countries  all  lie  within  the  celebrated  tin  region  of  Asia,  which 
embraces  an  area  of  many  thousand  square  miles,  and  extends  from  the 
mountains  on  the  north  to  the  islands  on  the  south,  some  of  which,  Banca 
and  Singkep,  are  famous.     Their  tin-mines  supply  the  markets  of  Europe. 

5.  Wliitc  sandalwood,  ebony,  rosewood,  ironwood,  and  the  red  dye-woods 
are  all  found  on  these  two  peninsulas  of  Siam  and  Malay  ;  and  here  the  betel- 
palm  produces  its  finest  fruit;  the  bamboo  flourishes;  cinnamon-trees  and 
aromatic  plants  perfume  the  air;  also  the  sweet-scented  eaglewood,  which  is 
burned  as  incense  in  the  heathen  temples,  is  among  the  treasures  of  the  forest. 

Indigo,  cotton,  the  sugar-cane,  rice,  tobacco,  and  the  mulberry  are  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  these  countries. 

.9.  The  elephant,  tiger,  rhinoceros,  leopard,  and  the 
buffalo  are  all  found  wild  in  great  numbers  here. 

Tlie  waters  teem  with  alligators,  and  the  forests  are  alive  with  monkeys. 
Witli  llic  natives,  alligators  are  an  article  of  food. 


During  the  prevalence  of  the  Southwest  monsoon,  the  sea  is  blown  so 
violently  that  the  shores  of  Indo-China  are  inundated.  The  forests  are  then 
navigated.  There  is  also  an  immense  fall  of  rain,  causing  an  overflow  of 
the  rivers,  which  then  make  short  cut-otFs  and  new  channels. 

Burmah  is  especially  rich  in  minerals.  The  celebrated  ruby-mines  are 
there ;  they  yield  sapphires  also. 

The  Burmese  and  Siamese  profess  great  veneration  for  white  animals. 
The  white  elephant  is  one  of  the  dignitaries  of  the  State.  He  has  his  palace, 
his  minister  of  State,  and  takes  rank  next  after  the  royalty. 

Bankok  has  a  population  of  400,000  inhabitants,  large  numbers  of  whom 
live  in  bamboo  huts  afloat  on  rafts  in  the  river. 


NAVIOATION      IN      IIIL      fuRESTS      OF      l.NDUCUINA. 


LESSOR  LXX. 

Hindostan,  or  India. 

1.  India,  with  its  departments,  including  Ceylon  and 
other  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  constitute  the  East 
India  possessions  of  Great  Britain.  They  embrace  an 
area  of  1.600,000  square  miles,  inhabited  by  195,000,000 
human  beings. 

About  one  hundred  years  ago,  what  is  now  called 
British  India  was  the  seat  of  an  empire  of  vast  wealth 
and  splendor. 

At  that  time  the  English  East  India  Company,  having  grown  rich  and 
powerful  under  its  monopoly  of  trade,  commenced  in  earnest  the  splendid 
conquest  which  gave  to  England  her  most  valuable  possessions. 

2.  India  is  now  divided  into  the  Presidencies  of  Ben- 
gal, Madras,  and  Bombay,  each  ruled  by  a  British 
governor. 

The  inhabitants,  exclusive  of  the  English,  who,  by  comparison,  are  few 
in  number,  are  generally  known  as  Hindus,  though  there  is  great  diversity  of 
language,  manners,  customs,  races,  and  religion  among  them. 

Though  the  country  is  still  populous,  it  was  yet  more  so  under  the  native 
riders  of  by-gone  days.  Its  deserted  capitals  and  decayed  cities,  its  won- 
derful antiquities  and  splendid  ruins,  tell,  in  language  the  most  eloquent, 
of  departed  greatness,  glory,  and  renown.  The  beautiful  Mogul  capital, 
Delhi,  had,  in  its  palmy  days  of  native  rule,  a  population  of  two  millions ; 
it  has  now  dwindled  down  to  less  than  two  hundred  thousand. 

3.  The  commerce  of  India  is  very  large.  Its  ex- 
ports are  coffee,  tea,  sugar,  cotton,  flax,  rice,  tobacco, 

opium,  indigo,  hemp, 
gums,  spices,  drugs, 
medicines,  gingelly,  and 
almost  every  variety  of 
merchandise. 

The  shawls  of  Cashmere,  the 
muslins  of  Dacca,  the  brocades 
cf  Benares,  the  embroidery  of 
Delhi,  and  the  jewels  of  Gol- 
ronda  all  figure  largely  in  the 
commerce  of  India. 

The  chief  seaports  are  Cal- 
cutta, Madras,  Bombay,  and 
Colombo. 

4.  India    lies    between    the 


132 


INDIA. 


parallels  of  8°  and  33'  north.  It  is  in  the  region  of  the  Monsoons,  so 
named  from  the  Malay  word  for  tlve  season,  which  marks  the  duration  of  the 
Monsoon.  For  six  montlis,  including  the  winter,  the  winds  come  from  the 
interior  and  are  dri/ :   these   are   the   northeast  monsoons.     For  the  other 


MONSOON     IN      TUK     UARBOR     OF     BOMBAT. 


si.K  months,  which  are  the  summer,  the  winds  come  from  the  sea  and  are 
moist.  They  bring  clouds  and  make  the  rainy  season.  These  are  the  south- 
west monsoons.  No  part  of  the  world  receives  so  heav^-  an  annual  rainfall 
as  some  of  the  hills,  as  Cherepungee,  north  of  Calcutta,  in  India. 


so  heats  and  rarities  the  air  there,  that  it  rises  up  as  from  a  furnace,  and  the 
air  from  all  sides  and  from  the  distance  of  more  than  a  tliousand  miles  out 
to  sea,  rushes  in  to  fill  the  vacuum.    Tins  m.\kes  the  monsoons. 

Thus,  this  great  plateau,  this  inland  basin,  this  vast  and  mountainous  plat- 
form that  lies  on  the  roof  of  Asia,  presents 
itself  in  a  new  light.  It  causes  the  winds  to 
blow  which  bring  the  rains  that  water  its 
slopes  and  fill  its  rivers. 

In  the  diagram,  the  arrows  with  half-barb 
show  winds  which  blow  for  half  the  year. 

3.  The  cotton  of  India,  owing" 
to  the  peculiarities  of  climate,  is 
of  a  short  staple,  and  therefore 
of  quality  much  inferior  to  our 
"New  Orleans  middlings." 

6.  Opium  is  made  from  the 
poppy,  and  the  cultivation  of  this 
])lant  is  an  important  branch  of 
industry. 

The  Chinese,  Japanese,  and 
the  inhabitants  generally  of  the 
East  India  Islands,  arc  much 
nddicted  to  opium-chewing  and 
s  Noking. 

The  entire  proceeds  of  the  tea  crop  are 
said  lo  be  insufficient  to  pay  for  the  opium 
annually  brought  into  China  and  consumed  there. 

7.  The  chief  cities  of  India  are  Calcutta,  Murshed- 
abad,  Patna,  Benares,  Cawnpoor,  Delhi,  Lucknow, 
Peshawur,Pondicherry,  Bombay,  and  Madras. 

Calcutta,  with  a  population  of  1,000,000,  is  the  residence  of  the  Governor- 
general  of  Imlia.     Its  animal  exports  amount  to  nearly  f  100,000,000. 

Bombay  has  a  pojjulalion  of  820,000,  and  is  noted  for  its  splendid  harbor, 
from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

Madras,  the  capital  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  as  Bombay  is  of  Bombay 
Presidency,  has  450,000  inhabitants.  It  is  most  imforlunately  situated  for 
trade,  being  exposed  to  violent  winds,  which  greatly  endanger  its  shipping. 

During  heavy  gales  on  the  coast  of  Madras,  the  surf  breaks  in  nine  fathoms 
of  water,  at  the  distance  of  four  or  five  miles  from  the  shore.  The  stoutest 
boat  cannot  live  in  it,  and  the  largest  vessels  cut  their  cables  and  put  to  .sea. 
So  awful  is  the  gale,  at  times,  that  the  waves  are  smoothed  and  levelled  down 
by  its  force,  and  their  crests  are  scattered  in  a  shower  of  spray,  called  by 
sailore  "  spoon  drift." 

Murshedabad  manufactures  silks,  carpets,  and  embroidery. 

Patna  is  a  city  of  mud  huts,  and  is  the  emporium  of  the  trade  in  opium, 
indigo,  rice,  sugar,  and  saltpetre.  Colombo,  with  a  population  of  40,000,  is 
the  chief  seaport  and  capital  of  Ceylon. 

Gaya,  as  the  birthplace  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  and  .Juggernaut, 
on  account  of  its  temple  of  Vishnu,  are  places  of  Hindu  pilgrimage. 


DIAGRAM     OF     THE     MONSOONS. 


[List  of  places  marked  on  the  Orographic  View  of  Central  A^ia,  p.  13-a 
1.  Lassa.  8.  Hyderabad.  15.  Peking. 

9.  Samarcand. 

10.  Bokhara. 

11.  Tobolsk. 

12.  Irkutsk. 

13.  Yablonoi  Mts. 
14  Lake  Tengri-Nor 


2,2,2.  Desert  of  Gobi 
3,3,8.  Cashmere. 

4.  Mt.  Dhawalaghiri. 

5.  Mt.  Gaurisankar. 
G.  Mt.  Kunchinjinga. 
7.  Multan. 


16.  Kiachta. 

17.  Canton. 

18.  Shanghai. 
19, 19,  19.  Nau-Shau  Mis. 

20.  Cabool. 

21.  Cherapungee. 


The  intense  force  with  which.  In  summer,  the  sun  strikes  with  his  vertical 
rays  upon  the  bare  rocks  and  arid  wastes  of  the  great  plateau  of  Central  Asia, 


W,  W,  W,  W.  Great  Wall  of  China. 
Note. — Let  tl>e  pupil  diligently  verity  each  of  these  places.] 


iiiifiii»BSiiiiiaii:iiili 


134 


ARABIA,    BELOOCHISTAN,  AFGHANISTAN,    TURKESTAN,    AND    PERSIA. 


8.  Benares,  with  600,000  inhabitants,  with  its  thousand  Hindu  temples 
and  its  333  mosques,  the  splendid  one  of  Auruugzebe  among  them,  and  its 
baths,  is  celebrated  for  its  diamond-dealers  and  the  wealth  of  its  bankers, 
and  is  a"  place  of  extensive  industries  and  much  trade.  Allahabad  (God's 
House)  is  another  place  of  pilgrimage  for  this  singular  people. 

9.  The  Jumna  and  the  Ganges  are  sacred  rivers,  and 
they  meet  at  Allahabad,  where  pilgrims  go  to  bathe. 

Cawupoor  and  Mirzapoor  are  near  together,  and  are  in  a  fine  cotton,  grain, 
indigo,  tea,  and  tobacco  country. 

Agra  is  noted  for  its  mausoleum  and  pearl  mosque. 

Delhi,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Mogul  sovereignty,  is  magnificent  with 
its  ruins.     It  has  a  large  trade  now  in  jewelry  and  cotton  goods. 

Hurdwar,  not  far  otf,  in  the  gorge  of  the  mountains  through  which  the 
sacred  river  runs,  is  the  place  of  pilgrimage  and  fairs. 

10.  Lucknow,  with  its  monuments  and  domes,  its  air}' 
palaces,  and  picturesque  style  of  architecture,  is  a  most 
fairy-like  city,  with  300,000  inhabitants. 

In  quelling  the  Indian  mutiny  of  1857,  the  heroic  Havelock  made  it  famous 
in  Anglo-Indian  history. 

Cashmere  is  noted  for  its  shawls  and  its  goats,  its  flowei-s,  roses,  and 
floating  gardens,  Tliere  are  no  roads  in  this  valley  nor  any  wheeled  vehicles 

Hyderabad  is  renowned  for  the  skill  of  its  lapidaries.  It  is  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  rock-temples  and  monolithic  palaces  of  Ellora,  all  cut  out  of  the  solid 
rock  as  it  lies  iu  the  mountain. 


LESSOJ^  LXXL 

Arabia,  Persia,  Beloochistan,  Afghanistan,  and  Turkestan. 

1,  You  observe,  by  a  glance  at  the  map  and  at  the 

Orographic   View,    that  _^-,  -.^_.=^=--.,-^^  _ — ^^^__     ^-_ 

the  watershed  of  Indin 

is    separated    from    the  j 

streams   in  these  conn-  ^: 

tries  by  the  Hala  Moun-  ^ 

tains,   and   that    all    of 


country  east,  and  the  country  west  of  the  Hala  Moun- 
tains. On  the  east  you  have  the  elephant,  the  tiger, 
and  the  monkey,  the  bamboo,  and  the  banyan  ;  and  on 
the  west,  the  oak,  the  ash,  the  fig,  the  date,  camels, 
dromedaries,  horses,  goats,  cows,  and  sheep. 

Where  there  is  so  little  rain  the  air  is  dry,  and  radiation  of  heat  goes  on 
much  more  rapidly  tlirough  a  dry  atmosphere  than  it  does  through  a  moist 
one ;  for  tliis  reason  the  climates  of  the  two  sides  of  the  Hala  range,  even  in 
the  same  latitude,  and  at  the  same  elevations,  are  very  different. 

On  the  dry  side  the  daj  s  are  warm  and  the  nights  are  cool,  with  the  sum- 
mere  much  liottcr,  and  winters  much  colder  than  they  are  on  the  India  side. 
Remember  this  i-ule  ;  it  is  an  important  one  in  Physical  Geography. 

Akabia 

8.  (Area  1,026,000  square  miles,  population  4,000,- 
000)  is  celebrated  for  its  horses,  its  camels,  and  its  coffee. 
It  is  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  States  and  Prov- 
inces under  separate  chieftains. 

Travelling  in  Arabia  is  both  difhcult  and  dangerous.  We  know  scarcely 
more  about  the  interior  of  it  tlian  we  do  about  the  geography  of  the  polar 
regions  of  tlic  north. 

This  part  of  Asia,  as  an  inspection  of  any  rain  mui) 
will  show,  is  as  dry  and  sterile  as  the  Great  Desert  of 
Sahara. 

It  is  of  interest  to  us  now,  chiefly  on  account  of  Bible 
associations.     Mount  Sinai  is  in  Arabia. 


I 


Asia  west  of  that,   and  r 
south  of  40°,   including 
Turkestan,      is     poorly 
watered. 


2.  The  people  in  these  diy 
countries  are  all  Mahommedan- 
War  seems  to  be  the  normal  stai 
except  in  Persia  and  Asiatic  Tui 
key  aq^I  Russia. 

Many  of  them  live  in  tents, 
and  their  chief  wealth  consists  in 
their  flocks  and  herds.  A  man 
there  who  has  as  many  as  1000 
sheep  is  rich. 

The  annual  pilgrimage  to  the 
tomb  of  Mahomet  in  Mecca,  is 
a  time  for  trade  and  traffic,  and  a 
great  fliir  is  held  in  the  city  at 
that  time. 

3.  There  is  a  marked 
contrast  between  the 
physical  aspects  of  the 


CKOSSINO     ▲     DESERT. 


ASIATIC    TURKEY    AND    ASIATIC    RUSSIA. 


135 


Beloochistan, 

5.  With  an  area  of  165,828  square  miles,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  2,000,000  inhabitants,  is  occupied  by  a  num- 
ber of  semi-barbarous  tribes  who  have  no  common 
ruler.  Kelat,  with  a  population  of  12,000,  is  the  chief 
town. 

Afghanistan 

0.  Has  an  area  of  258,520  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  4,000,000,  and  is  inhabited  by  a  warlike,  brave, 
and  fine-looking  race  of  people. 

They  are  the  people  who,  in  1843,  drove  the  English  out  of  Cabool  with 
such  terrible  disaster.  They,  too,  are  divided  into  factions  or  tribes,  each 
with  its  separate  chief,  khan,  or  sheik. 

Cabool,  with  a  population  of  00,000  ;  Kandahar,  of  75,000;  and  Herat,  of 
45,000,  are  its  chief  towns. 

Turkestan 

7.  Has  an  area  of  640,436  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  7,870,000,  and  is,  as  you  might  infer  from  the 
map  and  Orographic  View,  for  the  most  part  a  desert 
country.  The  inhabitants  live  now  as  they  were  said  to 
liave  lived  more  than  one  thousand  years  ago.  "They 
exercise  robbery  and  live  by  spoil." 

Bokhara — population  125,000 — "the  Treasury  of  Science,"  within  a  mud 
wall  24  feet  high  and  8  miles  round,  has  103  colleges  and  10,000  studeut.s. 
Nearly  all  of  Turkestan  is  under  Russian  control. 

Persia, 


8.    With 
an  area  of 

5  6  2,326 
square 
miles,  and 
a  popula- 
tion of  5,- 
000,000.  is 
a  dry  coun- 
try ;  but 
wherever 
there  is 
'■  the  scent 
of  water" 
the  little 
hills  rejoice 
on  evoiT 
s  i  d  e,  the 
pastures 
are covered 
with   flocks 


and  herds,  and  the  valleys  are  clothed  with  waving 
corn  or  with  the  most  fragrant  roses. 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  monarchies  in  the  world.  It 
has  the  signs  of  decay  and  the  marks  of  better  days. 

The  artisans  of  Persia  are  skilled  in  various  branches 
of  industry,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of  silks, 
shawls,  carpets,  and  small  arms. 

In  all  dry  countries  like  these,  the  fruits  and  melons, 
such  as  grapes,  pears,  peaches,  apricots,  nectarines, 
cantelopes,  watermelons,  plums,  cherries,  damascenes, 
figs,  pomegranates,  etc.,  etc.,  are  of  unsurpassed  beauty 
and  flavor. 

Teheran,  the  capital,  with  a  population  of  100,000,  is  in  a  region  which 
answers  in  latitude  and  geographical  aspects  more  nearly  to  Albuquerque,  in 
New  Mexico,  than  to  any  other  town  in  the  United  States. 

Ispahan,  with  a  population  of  180,000,  with  Casbiu,  Astrabad,  and  Tabriz, 
population  150,000,  arc  among  tlie  chief  towns. 

The  King  of  Persia  is  called  the  Sheik,     lie  is  a  Maliomniedau. 


LESS  O.N'    XAMTJ. 

Asiatic  Turkey  and  Asiatic  Russia. 

Asiatic   Turkey, 

Which  is  inhabited  by  13,000,000  Mohammedans, 
3,000,000  Christians,  and  1,000,000  Jews  and  Gypsies, 
is  likewise  a  dry  country.  We  have  some  commerce 
with  it  through  Smj'rna,  a  city  having  a  pop.  of  1  GO. 000. 


mim 


JERUBALEH. 


V 


^rl       h 


136 


y 


SYRIA.— GEORGIA.— SIBERIA. 


I  SHE  HIES      ON      THE      COAST      Of      SYKIA. 


2.  Syria,  one  of  the  })roviiices  of  Turkey,  contains 
the  land  of  Palestine,  famous  in  all  time  for  the  events 
recorded  in  Holy  Scripture. 

Jernsalcm,  the  Valley  of  the  Jovclan.  and  tlic  Dead  Sea,  arc  visited  by  all 
Oriental  travellers.     The  "  Holy  Places"  an;  in  Jerusalem. 

Sponge  and  coral  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean are  important  sources  of  Syrian  commerce. 

Sponges  are  fonnd  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  They  are  animal  produc- 
tions, livinf;  in  water  from  five  to  twentj'-fivc  fathoms  deep,  crowing  on  the 
rocks  or  on  marine  vegetables,  and  sometimes  on  sea  shells  and  corals. 

Asiatic  EugsiA 

3.  Embraces  a  large  portion  of  Asia.  It  includes  Rus- 
sian Armenia,  Shirvan,  wliich  extends  along  the  south- 
western shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Georgia,  and  Siberia. 

Russian  Armenia  contains  Mount  Ararat,  where  the  Russian,  Persian, 
and  Turkisii  empires  meet. 

4.  Shirvan  was  the  scene  of  a  bold  but  ineffective  campaign  of  Peter 
the  Great.  It  is  famous  for  its  springs  of  naphtha,  an  inflammable  fluid, 
which  often  ignites,  and,  flowing  into  the  Caspian,  sets  its  waters  on  fire. 
Near  these  springs  is  tlie  celebrated  Field  of  J''ire.  A  natural  and  inflam- 
mable gas  issues  constantly  from  holes  in  the  ground,  and  the  Guebres  or 
Parsees,  fire-worshippers,  at  Bakou,  tiie  chief  town  of  Shirvan,  have  built  their 
temples  over  the  openings  in  the  earth,  and  conduct  the  gas  to  chiumeys  in 
the  roof  of  the  temple,  where,  night  and  daj',  it  burns  with  dazzling  brilliancj-. 

5.  Georgia,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Caucasian  Moun- 
tains, also  belongs  to  Russia. 

It  is  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  women,  with  whom  the  Grand  Turk 
stocks  his  harems.    Tiflis,  having  a  population  of  40,000,  is  the  chief  town. 


The  Tartars  are  a  race  spread  over  all  parts  of  Central  Asia, 
chiefly  in  Caucasia  and  in  the  Crimea  of  Southern  Russia. 

6*.  Siberia  occupies  an  area  of  5,600,000 
square  miles,  one-third  more  than  the  entire  sur- 
face of  Europe,  while  its  population  does  not  equal 
that  of  Scotland.  The  climate  is  intensely  cold, 
and  the  mercury  is  frozen  for  several  months. 

The  silver  and  other  mines  of  Siberia  are 
worked  chiefly  by  exiles  who  have  been  ban- 
ished from  the  European  domains  of  Russia,  and 
who  are  sometimes  sent  in  vast  numbers  to  Si- 
beria. Poland  has  supplied  many  of  these  un- 
fortunate exiles. 

The  Sanioiedes,  a  race  similar  to  our  Esqui- 
maux, live  on  the  marshy  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean.     These  lands  are  called  Tundras. 

Tobolsk,  on  the  Irtish  river,  has  a  popvdation  of  32,000. 


I 


TO0NO     TARTAR     NOB1.B 


C\s^^ 


STUDIES    ON    THE  MAP   OF    ASIA. 


137 


What  are  the  marine  boundaries  of  the  Japan  Empire? — 
Where  is  the  Kiighis  Steppe  ?  —  Kamtchatlia  V  —  Bound 
Corea — Anam — Siam — Bound  Syria — Tartary — Mongolia — Man- 
chooria. 

Moiantaiiis,  Table-Lands,  and  Steppes. 

How  do  the  Asiatic  mountains  generally  run  ?  Arts.  Not  as 
the  American  mountains,  from  north  to  south,  hut  in  an  eastwardly 
and  westwardly  direction. — Begin  at  the  Taurus  Mountains,  in 
Turkey,  and  trace  the  mountain  system  of  Asia  to  the  northwest 
of  Siberia. — Describe  the  Altai — The  Yablonoi — Tliian  Shan 
— Peling  and  Meling — The  BolorTagh — The  Karakorum — 
The  Hala-The  Himalaya— The  Eastern  Ghauts— The  West- 
em  Ghauts— The  'lau.iis— Caucasus- HindooKoosh — The 
Suleiman  Range — Kuen  Lun — The  Ural  Mountains — The 
Nanling  Mountains. — Trace  the  limits  of  tlie  table-land  of 
Thibet — That  of  the  Deccan  in  India.  (See  Orographic  View  of 
Central  A&ia.)— Where  is  Mount  Everest? 


PBTBOPAUI-OWSKI. 


Irkutsk  is  the  seat  of  government,  with  a  population  of  20,000. 

Yakutsk,  5,000  miles  distant  from  St.  Petersburg,  is 
near  the  Asiatic  Pole  of  greatest  cold.  It  is  surrounded 
by  forests  and  marshes. 

Petropaulowski  (the  Port  of  Peter  and  Paul),  on  the  east  coast  of  Kamt- 
cliatka,  is  the  Russian  naval  and  military  head-quarters  in  Kamtchatka.  It 
is  nestled  in  a  pleasant  nook,  and  has  a  fine  harbor. 


LESSOX    LXXIII. 

Studios  on  tho  Map  of  Asia. 
Boundaries. 

Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  and  meiidians  of  longitude  docs  the 
continent  of  Asia  lie? — IIow  many  peninsular  projections  do  you  count  in 
Asia  ? — What  are  its  natural  boundaries  ? — What  are  its  political  boundaries 
on  tlje  west  ? — Name  the  great  seas  and  bays  tliat  indent  the  contment. — 
Wliat  sea  makes  the  deepest  and  widest  indentation  ? 

Bound  the  Chinese  empire,  as  far  as  possible,  by  its  natural  or  physical 
boundaries. — What  States  are  its  political  boundaries  ? — What  are  the  bound- 
aries of  Tliibet? — Bound  Russia  in  Asia,  physically  and  politically. — Bound 
Ilindostan  —  Burmali  —  Siam  —  Anam — Persia — Afghanistan — Beloochistan 
— Arabia — Turkey  in  Asia. 
1» 


Riveiv*:,  Lakes,  and  Inland  Seas. 

Wliat  rivers  of  Asia  empty  into  tlie  Indian  Ocean  ? — What, 
into  the  China  Sea? — What,  into  the  Yellow  Sea  and  Sea  of  Ja. 
pan  ? — What,  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  ? — Wliat  rivers  have  no  sea. 
drainage,  but  are  inland  ? — Is  tlfe  Volga  in  Europe  or  Asia  ? — 
The  Ural  river? — Tlie  Amu  ?  The  ancient  name  of  this  was  Oxits. 
Wliat  liver  of  Asia  crosses  the  greatest  number  of  degrees  of 
latitude? — What  river  crosses  the  greatest  number  of  degrees 
of  longitude  ?— Excepting  the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  which  is  the  longest  river  of  Asia?  (See  at  bottom  of 
Mercator's  Map  of  the  World.) 

Where  is  tlie  Indus  ?— The  Songko?— The  Nerbudda  ?— Irra- 
waddy  ?— The  Brahmapootra  ? — The  Godavery  ?— The  Ganges  ?— The  Hoog- 
jy?- Tlie  Canton?— The  Cambodia ?— The  Yang- tse-Kiang?— The  Hoang 
Ho?_Tlie  Amoor?— The  Obi?— The  Yenisei  ?— The  Lena?— The  Irtish? 

Where  is  the  Caspian  Sea  ?  This  inland  sea  has  no  outlet,  and,  though  it 
receives  the  VoUja,  the  largest  river  of  Europe,  its  level  is  falling,  owing  to  thi 
great  solar  evaporation  from  its  surface. — Where  is  the  Aral  Sea?  This  and 
tlie  Caspian  are  both  salt-water  lakes. — Where  is  the  Dead  Sea? — Lake  Balkash  ? 
— Lake  Baikal  ?  Lake  Baikal  is  the  largest  fresh-water  lake  in  Siberia.  In  win- 
er  it  is  covered  with  ice  four  feet  thick,  and  is  then  traversed  by  sledges  laden 
with  tea,  from  China.     It  receives  160  7-ivers  and   'reams. 


Capes,  Bays,  Grulls,  and  ^*"i*aits. 

Where  is  Cape  Ras-al-had  ? — Cape  Comorin  ? — Cape  Romania  ? — Cape 
Lopatka  ?— East  Cape  ?— Cape  Engano  ? 

Where  is  the  Bay  of  Bengal  ? 

Where  is  the  Persian  Gulf?— The  Gulf  of  Oman?— The  White  Sea?— 
Gulf  of  Martaban ?— Gulf  of  Siam?— Gulf  of  Tonquin  ?— Gulf  of  Cutch  ?— 
Gulf  of  Anadir? 

Where  is  Amur  Gulf ?— Strait  of  Malacca  ?— Strait  of  Formosa  ?  On  the 
east  side  of  the  island  of  Formosa  tlie  Black-stream  of  Japan  sets  very  stronglg 
to  tlie  north ;  on  tlie  west  side  of  the  island  the  cold  counter-current  from  the 
Arctic  seas  sets  strongly  to  tlie  south.  A  branch  of  it  enters  the  seas  between 
Japan  and  China  through  tlie  Qulf  of  Tarta/ry,  the  Straits  of  Perouse  and  San- 
gar,  and  tlve  Corea  Channel.— Where  is  Behring  Strait? 


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140 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS    ON    ASIA. 


Seas  and  Islands,  and  Deserts. 

Where  is  the  Arabian  Sea?— The  Red  Sea?— The  Caspian  Sea?— The 
Aral  Sea  ? — The  China  Sea  ?  This  sea  is  often  swept  by  the  fearful  storms  knoicn 
as  typhoons. — Where  is  the  Yellow  Sea  ? — Sea  of  Okhotsk  ? — Behring  Sea  ? 

How  many  Japanese  islands  are  there? — Name  four.— Where  is  the 
island  of  Socotra  ?— Where  are  the  Laccadive  Islands  ?— The  Maldives  ?— Cey- 
lon ?— Nicohar  ?— Andaman  Islands  ?— Hainan  ? — Hong-Kong  Island  ?— Sag- 
halien? — Staten  Island? — Kurile  Islands? 

Trace  the  limits  of  the  Arabian  Desert. — The  Great  Desert  of  Gobi,  or 
Shame.  Gobi  means  "  naked  desert,"  a  term  charactei-isttc  of  this  desert,  which 
is  covered  with  loose  sand,  bare  roc.h  fhingly  stones,  and  water-worn  pebbles. 


Cities,  Routes,  and  Distances. 

Where  is  Jerusalem? — Damascus? — Mecca? — Mocha?  Our  best  coffee 
comes  from  3/oe/u(.— Teheran  ?— Ispahan  ?— Bokhara  ? — Cabool  ?— Tobolsk  ?— 
Yakutsk?  This  is  near  "the  Asiatic  pcle  of  Greatest  Cold'' — Calcutta? — 
Bombay?  —  Singapore? — IIong-Kong  ? — Canton  ? — Shanghai  ?— Peking? — 
Where  is  Osaka? — Nagasaki? — Yokohama?  This  is  tlie  jwt  of  Tedo. — 
Ilakodadi  ?— Pctropaulowski  ?— Point  de  Galle  ?— Bankok  ?— Yedo  (Tokiol  ? 

How  would  you  go  from  Aden  to  Bombay? — From  Bombay  to  Calcutta? 
— Point  de  Galle  to  Singapore? — Shanghai  to  Ilakodadi? — From  Peking  to 
St.  Petersburg  ?    (See  page  126,  at  the  end  of  Map  Studies  on  Europe.) 

How  would  you  go  from  Yakutsk  to  St.  Petereburg? — What  is  the  dis- 
tance in  a  straight  line  from  Peking  to  Yakutsk  ? — From  Canton  to  Hakodadi  ? 
— By  water  from  Hong-Kong  to  Singapore  ? — From  Calcutta  to  Cashmere  ? — 
From  Jerusalem  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  ? 


Miscellaneous. 

Find  Mount  Sinai. — Where  was  ancient  Babylon  ? — Point  out  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  rivers. — How  far  is  Bombay  from  Calcutta  ? — Find  Lucknow — 
Delhi. — What  is  Thibet?  Ans.  A  plateau.  In  Thibet  and  Tartai^y  is  found 
the  strange  Yak,  or  grunting  ox,  which  loves  to  roam  above  the  snow-line. 


Where  is  the  great  watershed  of  Asia?  Ans.  N .  of  the  Knen-lun  Mts.  ; 
this  watershed  is  called  "  the  Roof  of  tlie  TVc^/'W."— Measuring  by  the  scale, 
what  is  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  Desert  of  Gobi  ?  Tliis  is  tlie  cradle  of 
the  ')nonsoo7is  of  tlie  Indian  Ocean.  Study  here  the  Orographic  View  of  Ce.ntral 
Asia. 

The  southwesti:rn  portions  of  Asia  and  the  northeastern  regions  of  Africa  are 
subject  to  peculiar  dust-whirlwinds,  which  bear,  in  minature,  a  resemblance  to 
cyclones  or  revolving  storms.  In  the  nortliern  liemisphere  they  revolve  against 
the  hands  of  a  watch;  in  tfie  southern,  with  titese  Jiands. 


\^ 


A     DUST- WHIRLWIND. 


Where  is  the  volcano  of  Foosiyama? — Where  are  the  Bonin  Islands? 
What  are  the  Tundras'*    Tliese  are  vast  marshy  plains  on  tJie  Arctic  Ocean. 
Where  is  the  Dead  Sea?     It  is  1300  feet  lower  t/uin  tlie  Mediterranean. 


THE     TAK     or     TARTABT. 


Revie"w    Questions. 

Lesson  LXVI.— i.  What  do  you  know  of  tlie  Asiatic  races?  2.  Of  the 
population  of  Asia?  .7.  Political  geography?  4.  Its  modes  of  life  and 
civilization?    5.  Woman  in  Asia?    6*.  The  grand  plateau  of  Asia  ? 

Lesson  LXVIL— i.  Describe  China.  2.  Its  famous  works.  3.  What 
is  said  of  the  Chinese  ?  4.  For  what  productions  are  their  soil  and  climates 
suited?  5.  Name  the  great  agricultural  staples  of  China,  and  de- 
scribe their  uses.  6'.  What  is  said  of  tiie  Chinese  religion  ?  7. 
Domestic  animals?  S.  Name  the  cities,  and  give  their  popula- 
tion.— What  is  said  of  Mongolia  ? 

Lesson  LXVIII. — 1.  Describe  tlie  Japanese.  2.  What  are  tlieir 
free  ports,  and  who  opened  them  ?  3.  Explain  their  government. 
4.  Their  literature.  5.  Their  laws.  G.  Tlie  nature  of  tlieir  coun- 
try. 7.  Domestic  furniture.  S.  What  is  said  of  the  Japan  Lsl- 
ands?  .9.  Their  climates  and  products?  10.  Minerals?  11. 
Japanese  cliaracter?    12.  Cities? 

Lesson  LXIX. — /.  Describe  Siam,  A  nam,  and  Bunnah.  2. 
Soil.  ,?.  Forests.  4.  Wlial  is  said  of  the  elephant?  .'>.  Trade  and 
religion?  6*.  The  Malay  Peninsula  ?— Singapore ?  7.  Tin  region 
of  Asia?  *.  Products?  .9.  Animals?— The  wliile  elephant?— 
Bankok  and  its  population? 

Lesson  LXX— J.  Extent,  history,  etc.,  of  India?  2.  Divi- 
sions? .?.  Commerce?  ^.  Seaports?— Explain  the  Monsoons.  r>. 
Cotton  of  India  ?  6*.  Opium?  7.  Cities?  «.  Describe  Benares. 
9.  Describe  other  cities  of  India.  10.  Lucknow— Vale  of  Cash- 
mere— Hyderabad. 

Lesson  LXXI. — 1.  Describe  the  countries  of  this  chapter.  2, 
People.  3.  Physical  aspects.— Mention  a  nilc  of  physical  gr-ogra- 
phy.  4.  Describe  Arabia.  5.  Beloochistan.  (i.  Afghanistan. 
7.  Turkestan.    8.  Persia. 

Lesson  LXXIL— i.  Describe  Asiatic  Turkey.  2.  Syria.  3. 
Asiatic  Russia — Russian  Armenia.  4.  Shirvan.  5.  Georgia,  (i. 
Siberia — Pctropaulowski. 


AFRICA. 


141 


AFRICAN  FAUNA  AND  FLORA. 


LESSOJf   LXXIY. 

Africa.   (Map,  p.  IM.) 

J.  General  Geoqvaplnj. — Africa    is    to    the    geog- 
rapher an  uukuowu  laud.     It  is  the  abode  of  the  negro 


and  of  the  wild  Arab.  Out  of  its  vast  forests  and  impene- 
trable jungles  come  forth  those  strange  animals,  the 
gorilla  and  chimpanzee,  that  bear  such  a  painful  resem- 
blance to  the  human  form. 

2.  Political  Geoffraphy. — Egypt  and  the  Barbary 
States  profess  the  Mahommedan  religion,  and  own  a 
certain  degree  of  allegiance  to  Turkey. 

Algeria  and  St.  Louis  belong  to  France.  The  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  the  Diamond  District,  and 
Sierra  Leone,  are  English  colonies. 

Our  telescopes  have  made  us  better  acquaiuted  with  the  geography  of  the 
moon  tliau  exi)l<jrali<m  has  jet  made  us  acquaiuted  with  the  interior  of 
Africa. 

3.  Desei'ts.— The  Libyan  Desert,  Nubia,  and  the  Great  Desert  of 
Saliara  are  attracting  great  interest  among  j)liysical  geographers. 

You  observe  that  tliey  are  situated  near  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  where  the 
noon-day  sun  is  vertical  in  midsummer.  The  atmosphere  there  is  singularly 
dry  and  clear,  and  the  sun  is  said  to  beat  down  through  it  with  terrilic  force, 
so  much  so  that  a  traveller  there  has  called  the  sand  "  fire,  and  the  air  flame." 
Notwithstanding  this  heat  by  day  (120°  Fahr.),  the  nights  were  .so  cold  that 
he  often  found  ths  water  in  his  canteen  frozen  in  the  morning. 

4.  Itivers. — There  arc  streams  of  water  here  antl 
there,  such  as  the  Nile  and  the  Niger,  that  flow  through 
this  country  and  spread  fertility  as  far  as  their  waters 
can  be  conveyed  by  artificial  means. 

.5.  Elevations. — The  hot  sun  m  the  desert  so  rarefies  the  air  that  it 
draws  Uie  winds  in  from  the  sea;  they  come  loaded  with  moisture,  of  which 
tiie  mountains  rob  them  as  they  pass.  Thus  the  Nile  is  fed,  and  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  country  made  fruitful,  which  but  for  the  mountains  would  l)c 
desert  too. 

G.  Seasons. — In  the  intertropical  countries  of  Africa, 


142 


MOROCCO,    ALGERIA,    TUNIS,    AND    TRIPOLI. 


as  in  those  of  Asia  and  America,  the  year  is  divided 
into  the  rainy  season  and  the  dry. 

In  all  intertropical  countries  of  the  Northern  Heynisphere, 
the  rainy  season  commences  in  the  summer-time. 


From  Cape  Colony  we  get  wines,  and  in  Natal  is  found  everything, 
except  naval  stores,  that  is  grown  in  our  Gulf  States.  Much  wool  is  pro- 
duced in  these  colonies.     Lai-ge  diamonds  are  found  there. 


10.  TJie  Clitnates,- 


The  climates  of  Africa  are  di- 
versified. 


WHITE     NILE. 


Eemernber  this  ;  it  is  a  physical  fact  and  a  geogiaj)!!- 
ical  law  of  great  importance. 

7.  The  Kile  and  other  Hirers.- -In  the  rainy  season,  the  head- 
streams  of  the  Nile  are  flooded.  It  is  a  long  river,  and  it  is  autumn  befon^ 
the  floods  get  down  to  Egypt, 

It  has  been  discovered  that  the  sources  of  the  Nile  extend  at  least  as  far  as 
Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  in  latitude  3°  south. 

This  makes  the  Nile,  when  measured  in  a  direct  line  from  soui'ce  to 
mouth,  the  longest  river  in  the  world. 

There  are  two  streams  which  form  this  great  river :  the  White  Nile  and 
the  Blue  Nile. 

The  Zambesi  drains  the  southern  declivity  of  the  same  divide  which  sheds 
its  waters  ofi"  to  the  north  through  the  Nile. 

8,  The  exploration 
of  Africa  does  not  fur- 
nish material  sufficient 
for  the  construction 
of  an  accurate  map 
of  its  immense  terri- 
tory. 

0,  JP  rod  net  ions, 
— From  the  western 
coasts  of  Africa  we 
get  palm-oil,  e  1  e- 
phants'  tusks,  which 
serve  as  ivory,  dye 
and  ornamental 
woods,  and  gold-dust. 

Fi'om  the  nv)rthern  prov- 
inces, such  as  Eg3'pt  and  Mo- 
rocco, we  get,  besides  cotton, 
dates,  morocco  leather,  silken 
and  other  fabrics. 

Southern  France  and  othei 
parts  of  Europe  are  supplied 
with  early  fruits  and  vegetables 
frv)iu  Aliicria. 


On  the  nortli  a  chain  of 
lofty  mountains  prevents  the 
ingress  of  the  cool  north 
winds,  while  on  the  north- 
east the  country  is  level,  and 
freely  admits  the  hot  blasts 
from  Arabia. 

The  western  coast  is  batiu'd 
by  a  cool  current  from  Biscay 
Bay  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Equator,  and  on  tlie  south  side 
by  a  current  from  the  Antarc- 
tic Ocean,  which  sometimes 
drifts  icebergs  near  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

The  eastern  coast  is  wash- 
ed  by   the   hot  gulf  stream, 
which  issues  from  the  Indian  Ocean  between  Madagascar  and  the  Mozam- 
bique coast,  and  consequently  has  a  climate  answering  to  that  of  Florida  and 
Georgia,  opposite  to  our  own  Gulf  Stream. 


LESSOJV  LXXV. 

Countries  of  Africa. 

Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli. 

These  arc  known  as  the  Barbary  States,  and  extend 
along  the  Mediterranean  for  2,000  miles. 


PURSUIT     OP     THE     RRINOCKROG 


LIBERIA.— EGYPT.— ABYSSINIA.— NATAL.— MADAGASCAR. 


H3 


This  region  of  country  was  in  ancient  times  a  dependency  of  Rome ;  it 
supplied  the  armies  and  navies  of  Carthage.  Algeria  and  Morocco  are 
travei-sed  by  the  Atlas  mountains.  In  the  Beled-el-Jerid  there  are  groves  of 
the  date-palm,  which  supply  the  natives  with  food  and  protect  them  from  the 
sun.  This  country  is 
visited  by  the  hot 
winds  from  the  Sahara. 
The  lion,  elephant, 
rhinoceros, camelopard, 
camel,  and  ape,  a  spe- 
cies of  tailless  monkey, 
are  the  chief  animals. 

Mouocco  is  an  in- 
dependent State.  Mo- 
rocco, its  capital, 
contains  100,000  inhab- 
itants. 

Algeria  is  a  colony 
of  France,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  3,000,000.  Al- 
giers, the  cajHtal,  has 
60,000  inhabitants,  and 
is  a  favorite  resort  for 
invalids  in  winter. 

Tnxis  embraces  in 
part  the  territory  of 
ancient  Carthage,  and 
now  has  a  population 
of  1,000,000.  Its  capi- 
tal, Tunis,  is  the  largest 
city  of  the  Barbary 
States,  with  150,000  m- 
habitants. 

TiupoLi  has  only 
one-half  the  population 

of  Algeria,  and,  having  no  mountains  between  it  and  the  Sahara,  is  sterile,  the 
sand  of  the  desert  being  blown  up  to  the  very  margin  of  the  sea.    Tripoli, 

the  capital,  is  a  starting-point 
for  explorers  of  the  Sahara. 

The  palm  is  a  tree  of  great 
value  in  this  part  of  Africa. 
Liberia. 

2.  Liberia  is  an  American 
settlement  of  emancipated  ne- 
groes, established  in  1823,  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  Ameri- 
can Colonization  Society.  It  is 
a  small  but  independent  repub- 
lic, with  700,000  inhabitants. 

3.  Senegambia,  Upper 
AND  Lower  GniNEA,  lie  in 
the  west  coast  region  of  Africa, 
and  are  famous  for  their  pro- 
ducts of  palm-oil,  cotton,  gin- 
ger, and  gold-dust.  Sierra 
Leone,  in  Senegambia,  ia  an 
English  asylum  for  recaptured 
Africans. 

Nubia  and  Kordofan 

4.  Are  under  the  rule  of  the 
Pacha  of  Egypt.  In  these  sec- 
tions of  Egypt  the  bed  of  the 
Nile  is  much  depressed,  and 
water  is  obtained  on  the  high 
banks  by  water-wheels.  Khar- 
toum, near  the  confluence  of 
the  Blue  and  White  Nile,  is  a 

PALM-TBKB.  clty  of  40,000  inhabitants. 


Egypt. 

5.  In  olden    times   Egypt  was    the  granary  of  the 
world.     It  is  now  governed  by  a  Viceroy  of  the  Sultan 


PANORAMIC      VIEW     OP      THE      SUEZ     CANAL. 


M.  Lesseps,  a  Frenchman,  has  made  the  present 
Pacha's  reign  glorious  by  constructing  a  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 

It  has  a  depth  of  26  feet,  and  was  opened  to  commerce  in  the  autumn  of 
1869.  It  connects  Suez  on  the  Red  Sea  and  Port  Said  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean; 

Egypt  is  rich  in  ruins  and  monuments  of  former  greatness. 

The  Valley  of  the  Nile,  though  of  unrivalled  fertility,  lies  in  the  rainless 
region.  But,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  often  for  months  not  even  a  drop 
of  rain  falls  in  the  Valley  of  the  Nile,  this  great  river  rises  annually  and 
nlmoHt  on  tlie  same  day  every  year,  ;  its  overflow  enriches  the  soil. 

Alexandria,  the  principal  seaport  of  Egypt,  has  a  population  of  165,000. 

Cairo,  the  capital,  and  the  largest  city  of  Africa,  contains  260,000  in- 
habitants. 

Suez,  connected  with  Cairo  by  rail,  and  with  a  population  of  8,000,  is  at 
the  head  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Abyssinia 

6.  Consists  of  three  States,  under  the  government  of  an  Emperor.  High 
table-lands  mark  this  part  of  Africa,  and  they  form  the  watershed  of  the 
Blue  Nile. 

Ankobar,  the  chief  town  in  Abyssinia,  with  a  population  of  10,000,  enjoys 
a  most  delightful  climate. 

7.  The  Orange  Republics. — In  the  rear  of  Natal  lie  the  "  Orange  Re- 
publics," two  small  Dutch  settlements  ;  and  the  Diamond  Fields. 

8.  Natal.— The  climate  of  Natal,  and  the  neighboring  regions  along  the 
east  coast  of  Africa,  adapts  this  country  to  the  cultivation  of  the  staple  pro- 
ductions of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 

.9.  Madagascar  is  the  largest  island  that  anywhere  curtains  the  shores 
of  Africa.     It  is  an  independent  kingdom. 


Meridiaa      0       of  Greenwich. 


c    "  AZORES 


BT   MICHAEL'S 


JIADMRA 
rVXCUAL'ijt 


JErzroum. 


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STUDIES    ON    THE    MAP    OF    AFRICA. 


145 


LJESSOJV  LXXVI. 

Studies  on  the  Map  of  Africa. 

Boundaries,  Capes,  and  Mountains. 

In  what  latitude  is  the  most  northerly  point  of  Africa  ? — The  most  south- 
erly point  ? — Bound  the  Barbary  States — Liberia — Abyssinia — Guinea — Sene- 
gambia. — Bound  the  Great  Desert  of  Sahara. 

What  is  the  most  northerly  cape  of  Africa? — the  most  easterly  ? — The 
most  westerly  ?— The  most  southerly  ?— Length  and  breadth  of  the  Red  Sea? 


Bays,  Gulfs,  Lakes,  and  Rivers. 

Where  is  Sofala  Bay  ?— Algoa  Bay  ?— Delagoa  Bay  ?— Gulf  of  Guinea  ?— 
Gulf  of  Sidra  ? — Gulf  of  Aden  ? — Bight  of  Benin  ?  Bight  is  a  bend  in  the  mi- 
coast,  making  an  open  space  like  a  bay. — Bight  of  Biafra? 

Where  is  Lake  Tchad  ? — Where  is  Lake  Tanganyika?  This  lake  was  dis- 
covered in  1859  by  Captains  Burton  and  Hpeke,  and  partkdly  explored  in  two  canoes. 

Where  is  the  Gaboon  river? — The  Zambesi? — The  Limpopo? — Where  is 
the  Niger  river  ? — What  separates  its  headwaters  from  the  sea '! 

Describe  the  Orange  river — The  Congo — The  Gambia — The  Senegal — 
The  Nile.— Point  out  the  White  Nile— The  Blue  Nile— Their  Cataracts. 


Islands,  African  Cities,  and  Oases  of  Sahara. 

Where  is  Ascension  Island  ? — To  wliom  does  it  belong  ? — Describe  Mada- 
gascar.— What  island  lies  east  of  it,  and  to  whom  does  it  belong  ? — Where 
are  the  Cape  de  Verd  I'ds?  (see  p.  21.)— The  Madeira?— The  Azores?— The 
Canaries  ? — What  celebrated  peak  in  the  Canaries  ?  Ans.  The  Peak  of  Tew- 
riffe,  a  vokano  seen  in  ei'uption  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage  to  the  New  World, 
]2,\S2  feet  high.  The  winds  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  tlie  peak  often  blow  in  con- 
trary directions.     Tluese  are  the  upper  and  lower  currents  of  tlic  trade-wind. 

Where  is  Cairo? — Alexandria? — Khartoum? — Ankobar? — Mozambique  ? 
— Tananarivo  ? —  Petermaritzberg  ? — Natal  ? — Cape    Town  ?—  Georgetown  ? 

19 


— Benin  ?  —  Free  Town  ?  —  Monrovia  ?  —  Timbuctoo  ?  —  Fez  ?  —  Algiers  ?— 
Tunis  ? — Tripoli  ? — Find  Timimoom,  Murzuk,  and  Tegherry,  in  the  Desert 
of  Sahara.  This  Desert  is  a  waste  of  sand,  like  the  upheaved  bottom  of  a  great 
sea,  

Miscellaneous. 

Where  is  the  Mozambique  Channel  ? — What  current  sweeps  through  it  ? 
— Capital  of  Madagascar  ? — What  is  the  capital  of  the  Madeira  Islands  ?— 
Where  is  Santa  Cruz  ? — Angra  ? — The  Gallas  country  ? — What  isthmus  unites 
Asia  and  Africa?— Where  is  the  Island  of  St.  Helena? — Where  are  the  Pyra- 
mids? Ans.  Near  Cairo. — The  ruins  of  Thebes?  Ans.  On  the  Nile,  in  latitude 
25'  30'. 

Here  is  a  scene  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  there  the  waves  run  so 
high  as  to  hide  one  vessel  from  another  even  wlien  they  are  close  by.  Tliis 
Cape  and  Cape  Horn  are  called  the  Storm  Capes. 


The     MAGELLANIC      CLOUDS      AND     THE      SOUTHERN     CROSS. 

A  vessel  on  reaching  the  southern  hemisphere,  comes  dearly  in  sight  of  the 
Magellanic  clouds  and  the  Southern  Cross — the  mastfainous  obszcts  in  (he  south- 
ern skies.  At  a  certain  time  of  the  year  the  Cross  stands  erect  at  midnight.  Tlie 
Indians  in  South  America  call  out  tlie  time  in  mournful  cadence,"'  It  is  past 
midnight,  the  Southern  Cross  begins  to  decline." 

Where  is  Cape  Palmas  ? — Cape  Blanco  ? — Cape  Lopez  ? — Cape  Corrieiites  ? 
—Cape  Verd  ?— Cape  Bon  ?— Where  is  C.  Frio  ?— C.  Guardafui  ?— C.  Spartel  ? 

Name  the  principal  range  of  mountains  in  the  north  of  Africa — In  the 
east — In  the  west. — Where  are  the  Kong  Mountains  ? — The  Cameroons  ? — 
The  Atlas  Mts.  ?— The  Cape  Mts.  ?— Mts.  of  the  Moon  ?— Point  out  the 
mountains  in  Abyssinia. — Where  is  Mount  Kilimandjaro  ? — Mount  Kenia? 
The.'ie  are  lofty  peaks  nearly  under  the  Equator,  perpetually  clad  in  snow  ;  the 
former  is  21,000/ee<  high. 


BIG  WAVES  OFF  THE  CAPE  OP  GOOD  HOPE. 


RevicAV  Questions. 

Lksson  LXXIV. — 1.  For  what  is  Africa  remarkable  ?  2.  Its  political 
geography?  3.  Describe  its  deserts.  4.  Rivers.  5.  Elevations.  6.  Sea- 
sons.— What  important  geographical  law  is  mentioned  in  this  connection  ? 
7.  Describe  the  Nile.  S.  What  can  you  say  of  African  explorations  ?  ,9. 
Productions  ?  10.  Climates  ?— What  warm  Stream  washes  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa  ? 

Lesson  LXXV. — 1.  Name  the  Barbary  States. — How  far  do  they  extend  ? 
— What  is  said  of  this  region  in  ancient  times  ? — Describe  Morocco — Algeria 
— Tunis — Tripoli. 

2,  Describe  Liberia — Its  population.  3.  Senegambia,  Upper  and  Lower 
Guinea. — Their  productions. — Sierra  Leone. 

■i.  Under  what  authority  are  Nubia  and  Kordofan  ? — How  is  water  ob- 
tained on  the  Nile  where  the  banks  are  high  ? — Wiiat  is  said  of  Khartoum  ? 
— Its  population  ? 

5.  Describe  Egypt. — The  constructor  of  the  Suez  Canal. — Describe  the 
work. — What  points  does  it  unite  ? — Wliat  is  said  of  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  ? 
— Time  of  the  river's  overflow  ? — Alexandria  ? — Cairo  ? — Suez  ? 

G.  What  is  said  of  Abyssinia  ?— The  watershed  of  the  Blue  Nile  ?  7.  Tlie 
Orange  Republics  ?  8,  What  is  said  of  the  climates  of  Natal  ?  9.  Mada- 
gascar ? 


146 


AUSTRALIA. 


LESSOM     LXXVII. 

Australia.   (Map,  p.  148.) 

1.  Area  and  Colonies. — This  is  the  largest  island 
in  the  world.  It  is  owned  exclusively  by  Great  Britain. 
She  has  established  in  it  five  colo- 
nies, leaving  room  for  a  sixth. 
She  has  established  colonies  also 
in  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand. 

These  seven  colonies  are  New  South  Wales, 
West  Australia,  South  Australia,  Victoria, 
Queensland,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand. 

2.  Antipodal  Relations.  —  Austialia 
is  on  the  side  of  the  world  opposite  to  us,  \\  itli 
opposite  seasons.  There  the  sun  casts  iis 
shadow  to  the  south  at  noon,  and  there  Christ- 
mas comes  in  midsummer.  It  is  the  very 
opposite  in  several  other  respects  also. 

There  the  leaves  of  the  trees  are  not  green, 
hut  dull  brown,  or  leaden  gray.  The  sun  is 
so  hot  and  the  air  so  dry  that  the  narrow 
leaves  arrange  themselves  vertically  instead  of  r, 
horizontally,  and  both  sides  are  alike.  There  a 
forest  is  seldom  found.  The  trees  group  them- 
selves in  clumps ;  they  cast  shadows,  but  they 
make  not  much  more  shade  than  Avould  so 
many  leafless  branches.  In  autumn,  some  of 
the  trees  shed  their  bark  instead  of  their  leaves. 

3.  Vegetation  and  Animals.— In  Australia  there  are  nettles  with 
stalks  nine  feet  in  circumference  and  forty  feet  high ;  and  there  are  no  abo- 
riginal quadrupeds  or  beasts  of  prey  larger  than  the  Dingo  dog,  a  sort  of  wolf; 
there  is  also  an  opossum  (tlie  kangaroo)  which  lives  on  vegetables,  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  its  tail,  runs  on  two  legs  with  the  speed  of  a  race-horse.  The 
ostrich  of  Australia  (the  emu)  is  six.  feet  high.' 

4.  Climates. — Australia  is  for  the  most  part  a  dry 
country,  the  reason  for  which  you  will  un- 
derstand when  you  learn  physical  geogra- 

5.  Natives. — The  natives  are  a  sort  of  negro  without 
woolly  heads,  but  with  thick  lips  and  flat  noses.  Tlieir 
complexion  varies  from  chocolate-brown  to  sooty-black. 

6.  Minerals. — These  colonies  are  rich  in  other  min- 
erals besides  gold,  especially  in  copper. 

7.  Cities. — Brisbane,  Sydney,  and  Mel- 
bourne, the  capital  of  Australia,  are  im- 
portant marts. 

8.  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania.— l^ew  Zea- 
land is  also  rich  in  gold.  Considering  its  latitude,  its  cli- 
mates are  mild,  and  it  is  a  fine  agricultural  country.  The 
Maoris,  a  fierce  race,  are  the  aboriginal  inhabitants. 

These  islands,  being  supplied  with  warmth  and  mois^ 
ure  by  the  sea- winds,  will  produce  anything  that  is  grown 
in  similar  latitudes  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

South  of  these  islands,  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  lies 
Victoria  Land,  discovered  by  Sir  James  Ross  in  1841. 

9.  The  Tides.— It  is  in  the  ocean  south  and  east  of 
Tasmania  that  geographers  locate  the  birth  of  the  great 
tidal- wave  which  affects  nearly  every  sea-coast  on  the 
globe.  The  tides  are  regular  movements  of  the  water  of 
the  sea,  which  ebb  and  flow  twice  every  day. 


The  prime  cause  of  the  tidal-wave  is  the  attraction  of  the  moon,  or  tlie 
attraction  of  the  moon  and  sun  in  conjunction,  upon  the  deep  waters. 

When  the  moon  stands  over  the  deep  sea  it  causes  the  water  to  bulge  up 
and  foi"m  a  wave  a  few  inches  high.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  tide-wave. 
As  the  earth  is  always  turning  on  its  axis,  it  presents  all  its  meridians  suc- 
cessively toward  the  moon,  aud  tluis  the  lide-wavc  is  kept  at  constant  high- 
water  on  the  side  nearest  to  the  moon.    (See  Diagram,  next  page.) 


VIEW     or      S  YD  NET. 


The  moon  most  strongly  attracts  that  part  oi  the  earth  nearest  to  it,  and  it 
attracts  the  centre  of  the  earth  more  strongly  than  the  opposite  side.  The 
water  on  the  opposite  side,  therefore,  remains  in  ari-ear,  and  appiireiitJy 
recedes, forming  a  second  protuberance  on  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Thus  we 
have  two  high  tides,  and  half-way  between  them  we  have  two  low  tides.  The 
tide-waves  move  with  a  velocity  of  1000  miles  an  hour.  They  are  not,  how- 
ever, currents  like  the  Gulf  Stream,  but  waves  like  "  the  waving  grain." 


MOUNT      EREBUS,     IN     VICTORIA     LAND. 


THE     ISLANDS,     OR      OCEANIA.— THE     EAST     INDIES.— POLYNESIA. 


147 


DIAGHAM     OP     LUNI-SOLAB     TIDE. 


LESS  OX    LXXVIII. 

Oceania.   (Map,  p.  148.) 

1,  Oceania  lies  chiefly 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
south  of  the  equator. 

Most  of  its  islands  are  either  of 
coral  formation,  or  madreporic,  or 
of  volcanic  oriijin. 

2.  Tlie  Coralline. — The  cor- 
alline is  a  small  creature  not  half 
the  size  of  a  mite  in  the  cheese,  yet 
it  builds  up  from  the  bottoni  of  the 
sea  vast  islands,  upon  which  sea- 
shells  gather,  birds  light,  seeds  drift, 
and  then  plants  grow,  and  after  that, 
man  comes  to  occupy  and  replenish. 

•i.  Coral  Iteef. — There  is  a 
coral  reef  that  skirts  the  northeast 
coast  of  Australia  for  more  than  a 
thousand  miles 

It,  like  all  the  other  coral  formations  and  sea-shells,  is  composed  chiefly 
of  the  lime  which  the  rains  on  shore  dissolve,  and  which  the  rivers  bring 
down  to  the  sea.  These  little  creatures,  called  corallines,  have  the  power, 
like  all  sliell-fish,  of  separating  this  lime  from  the  water,  of  reducing  it  to 
the  solid  state,  and  of  converting  it  into  structures  of  various  kinds. 

These  islands  are  not  unfrequently  surrounded  by  coral  reefs  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  shore.  The  great  barrier  reef  of  Australia  varies,  in  its  distance 
from  the  shore,  from  a  few  yards  to  40  miles,  and  in  its  breadth  nearly  as 
much.  These  reefs  just  reach  the  surface  of  the  sea  and  serve  as  breakwaters. 
Between  them  and  the  shore,  ships  ride  in  deep  and  smooth  water. 

4.  Instincts  of  Corallines. — The  little  corallines  leave  gaps  here 
and  there  in  tlie  reefs,  so  that  the  water  may  circulate  freely  and  keep  them 
supplied  with  "  brick  and  mortar"  for  the  vast  structures  that  they  build. 

5.  Offices  of  Sea  Currents.— Thus  you  see  that  the  currents  of  the 
sea  perform  the  office  of  "  hod-carriers"  for  these  little  masons  of  the  deep. 

The  East  Indies.    (Maps,  pp.  148  and  152.) 

6'.  The  islands  of  the  Indies  are,  in  eastern  phrase- 
ology, "  the  gardens  of  the  sun."  Thej^  are  intertropi- 
cal, and  resemble  in  their  climate  and  productions  our 
own  AVest  Indies.  The  East  Indies  are  rich  in  gums 
and  spices.     Pop.  28,000,000  ;  area  800,000  sq.  miles. 


New  Guinea  (area  274,500  square  miles,  population  1,000,000)  is  inhab- 
ited by  uncivilized  negroes. 

The  bird  of  Paradise,  whose  beautiful  plumage  ladies  often  wear  on  their 
bonnets,  is  a  native  of  this  island. 

Sumatra,  with  an  area  of  174,170  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
2,000,000,  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Malays,  by  whom  also  all  of  these  islands, 
except  New  Guinea,  are  inhabited.    Many  of  these  Malays  are  pirates. 

Java  has  an  area  of  52,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  14,000,000. 
This  island,  though  not  the  largest,  is  the  most  populous,  wealthy,  and  influ- 
ential of  the  East  India  islands.  It  is  the  "  pearl  of  the  Indies."  It  belongs 
to  the  Dutch,  and  yields  a  revenue  of  $10,000,000  annually.  It  exports  coffee, 
tobacco,  sugar,  and  various  other  articles. 

The  Islands  of  Banca  and  Billiton,  famous  for  their  tin-mines,  also  belong 
to  the  Dutch. 

The  Celebes,  another  rich  group,  with  an  area  of  50,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  300,000,  are  inhabited  by  a  number  of  independent  tril)es, 
of  whom  "  the  Boogis"  are  the  principal. 

The  Moluccas  (area  70,000  square  miles,  population  3,000,000),  are  also 
famous  for  their  spices.  They  are  controlled  chiefly  by  the  Dutch,  who  carry 
on  an  important  trade  through  the  little  island  of  Amboyna. 

Borneo,  with  an  area  of  289,070  square  miles,  and  1,200,000  inhabitants, 
the  largest  of  these,  is  for  the  most  part  still  under  the  rule  of  its  dusky  sons, 
called  Dyaks.     They  are  very  warlike. 

The  Philippine  Islands,  with  an  area  of  114,120  square  miles,  and  with 


CORAL     ISLAND      OP     OENO     AND     ITS     LAGOON. 

M  population  of  0,000,000  inhabitants,  belong  to  Spain.  Next  to  Java  these 
are  commercially  the  most  important  of  the  East  Indies.  We  have  a  valu- 
able trade  with  tliem  in  rice,  sugar,  hemp,  tobacco,  nutmegs,  and  other  spices. 
These,  with  the  islets  and  groups  adjacent  to  them,  together  with  Ceylon, 
the  Maldives,  and  the  Laccadives,  the  Seychelles,  the  isles  of  Bourbon  and 
Mauritius,  constitute  the  chief  islands  and  groups  of  the  East  Indies. 

Polynesia. 
7.  Further  to  the  east  we  have  Polynesia,  or  the  7nam/ 
islands,  which  dot  the  Pacific  Ocean  through  the  space 
of  many  millions  of  square 
miles. 

Examine  the  map  and  you  will  see 
how  numerous  they  are,  and  how  broad 
is  the  area  over  which  they  are  sprin- 
kled. 

Here  we  find,  on  shore,  in  their 
greatest  perfection,  the  bread-fruit,  the 
cocoanut,  and  the  sweet-scented  san- 
dalwood, which  last  is  burned  by  the 
Chinese  as  incense  in  their  pagodas. 

Madrepores  are  animal  flowers  of 
the  great  deep,  distinct  from  the  coral,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  calcareous 


THE     BREAD-FRUIT. 


135 


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ISLANI/S    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    OCEAN.— MAP    STUDIES. 


crust  which  always  surrounds  their  tissue.  Thousands  of  islands  in  the  ocean 
are  of  madreporic  formation.  The  illustration  represents  half  the  natural 
size  of  a  madrepore. 


\ 


MADREPORE      OP     THE      INDIAN     OCEAN. 

8.  The  Sandwich  Islands  are  the  only  group  in  Poly- 
nesia that  have  attained  to  the  dignity  of  nationality. 

We  have  a  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce,  and  navigation  with  the  king 
of  tlie  Sandwich  Islands,  who  is  a  highly  accomplished  gentleman. 

Honolulu,  the  capital,  (popula- 
tion 14,000),  is  the  most  iniixntant 
island  town  in  the  wliole  of  Poly- 
nesia. It  has  an  extensive  trade 
with  the-United  States. 

Hawaii,  the  lai-gest  island  of  the 
group,  is  volcanic.  On  it  towers, 
at  the  height  of  13,700  feet,  Mauna 
Loa,  with  its  seething  cauldron  of 
molten  lava,  1500  feet  deep  and 
two  miles  in  circumference. 

These  islands  are  a  famous  place 
of  rendezvous  for  our  whalers. 

Lot's  wife,  a  shaft  of  granite 
rising  300  feet  out  of  mid-ocean,  is 
one  of  the  wonders  of  Polynesia. 

Formosa  belongs  to  China. 
The  French  have  occupied  New 
Caledonia,  the  Society,  and  the 
LOT'S  WIPE.  Marquesas  islands. 

Islands  of  the  Atlantic  Ockax.    (^lap,  p.  152.) 

9.  All  the  islands  in  this  ocean  have,  under  the  influ- 
ences and  agencies  of  commerce,  been  brought  within 
the  pale  of  civilization. 

St.  Helena,  a  rock,  owned  and  fortified  by  Great  Britain,  is  of  note  chiefly 
because  it  was  there  that  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  imprisoned  and  died. 

The  Cape  deVerdes,  Madeira,  and  Azores  all  belong  to  Portugal.  They 
are  volcanic,  and  are  famous  for  ft'uits  and  wines. 

Tiiey  produce  also  coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco.    More  than  half  the  oranges 


imported  into  Great  Britain  are  said  to  come  from  St.  Michael's,  one  of  the 
Azores.  As  many  as  20,000  oranges  have  been  known  to  be  gathered  from  a 
single  tree  there  iu  one  j'ear. 

The  Canaries,  also  volcanic,  belong  to  Spain  ;  they 
too  are  famous  for  their  wines. 

To  them  we  owe  the  sweet  little  singing-bird  that  bears  their  name. 

The  Bermudas,  said  to  consist  of  nearly  3,000  islets, 
belong  to  Great  Britain.  On  them  she  has  a  naval  station 
and  an  excellent  dockyard.- 


^. 


/^ 


LE8S0K    LXXIX. 


■/' 


Studies  on  the  Map  of  Oceania  and  Australia. 

Botnidarics  and  Positions.— Between  what  parallels  of  latitude 
and  meridians  of  longitude  does  Australia  lie?— Bound  New  South  Wales- 
Bound  Victoria— North  Australia— South  Australia.- Bound  West  Australia. 
Wliere  is  Queen's-Land  ?— Tasman  Land  ?— Wlure  is  TasuuiniaV— New 
Zealand?— What  are  llK'ir  brarings  from  M<!l)ourii<?-\Vhal  tropic  crosses 
Australia  ?— Where  is  Auckland  I.  ?— Name;  the  New  Zealand  Islands. 

Point  out  the  Sandwich  Islands— tlie  Low  Archipelago— Fejee  Islands- 
Gilbert  Islands— New  Hebrides— Admiralty  Islands— Timor  Islands— The 
Moluccas— The  Ladrones— The  Caroline  Islands— Formosa— Tlic  Loo  Choo 
Islands— Where  arc  (he  Lousiadc  Islands  ?— New  Caledonia  ?— The  Solo- 
mon Isles  ?— Borneo  ?— Smnatra  ?— .Lava  ?— Wliat  groups  form  Micronesia  ? 


SULTAN     OP     BORNEO. 


Seas,  Chdfs,  and  Bays.— Where  is  the  China 
for  the  fierce  Ujpltoom  that  visit  it. — The  Java  Sea  ? — 
Sea  ?— Coral  Sea  ? 


Sea? 
Celebes 


TJiis  is  famous 
Sea?— Timor 


RECENT    GEOGRAPHICAL     EVENTS     AND    DISCOVERIES. 


i5i 


Where  is  the  Gulf  of  Australia  ?— Gulf  of  Carpentaria  ?— Spencer's  Gulf  ?— 
Temple  Bay?— Princess  Charlotte's  Bay  ?— Shark  Bay  ?— Halifax  Bay  ?— Bot- 
any Bay  ? — Geographe  Bay? — Storm  Bay? — Jervis  Bay? — Bay  of  Plenty? 

Straits,  Capes,  Headlands,  and  Points. — Where  is  Sunda 
Strait  ? — What  does  it  separate  ? — Tell  where  the  following  straits  are,  and 
what  they  separate  : — Torres  Strait — Dampier  Strait — Malacca  Strait — Strait 
of  Macassar — Bank  Strait — Bass  Strait — Foveaux  Strait. 

Where  is  Cape  Leeuwin  ?— Cape  Naluraliste  ? — West  Cape  ? — Cape  Bou- 
gainville ?— Cape  York?— Cape  Coffin?— Cape  Moreton ?— Cape  Melville  ? 

Where  is  Java  Head  ? — Macquarie  Head  ? — Point  Danger  ? — Rocky  Point  ? 

^fountains  and  Volcanoes,  Rivers  and  Lakes. — Where  are 
the  Australian  Alps  ? — Where  is  Murchison  Range  ? 
— Mount  Wilson  ? — Mount  Egerton  ? — Mount  Al- 
exander?— Mount  Cook? 

Where  is  Mauna  Loa?  Some  of  the  lava  riverx 
ejected  from  Mauna  Loa  are  twenty-six  miles  loni/. 
— Where  is  the  Murray  River  ? — The  River  Dar- 
ling?— The  Molyneux  River? — Where  is  Lake 
Eyre  ? — Lake  Lefroy  ? 

Cities  ami  Distances. — Where  is  Mel- 
bourne ?  —  Sidney  ?  —  Brisbane  ?  —  Adelaide  ?  — 
Hobart  Town  ?  —  Auckland  ?  —  Batavia  ?—  Bor- 
neo ? — Manilla?  From  ManilUi  we  get  Oranges. — 
Honolulu  ?  This  is  the  chief  entrepot  between  the 
opi-oKie  sJuyres  of  tJie  Noi-th  Pacific. — When  it  is  12  o'clock  M.  at  WasliingUKi, 
what  is  the  hour  at  Peking? — At  Sydney,  Australia? — At  San  Francisco? 


THE   OBANGE. 


LESSOM  LXXX. 

The  most  Recent  Geographical  Events  and  Discoveries. 

The  record  of  geographical  discoveries  within  the  last  few  years  is  one  of 
great  importance,  and  should  be  studiously  pondered  by  the  geographer. 

(1.)  The  completion  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  by  whicli  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans 
were  connected,  was  a  geographical  event  which  will  always  mark  the  year  1869.* 

(2.)  Within  the  last  two  years  a  new  and  extensive  gold-district  has  been  discovered 
and  examined  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Diego,  California. 

(3.)  The  Rio  Colorado,  the  stream  which  drains  the  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  Colorado  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Pacific,  has  been  explored  to  its  highest 
sources  ;  the  exploration  revealing  the  ruins  of  cities,  aqueducts,  and  fortified  places  belong- 
ing to  a  people  of  whose  remote  history  we  are  ignorant. 

(4.)  The  head-waters  of  the  Missouri  river  have  been  traced  into  a  region  of  great  min- 
eral wealth  in  Montana,  and  within  less  than  a  mile  of  a  small  stream  which,  by  a  devious 
way,  flows  westward  as  a  tributary  ot  the  Columbia. 

(5.)  The  Physical  Survey  of  several  States  o(  the  Union  has  been  undertaken  and  prose- 
cuted with  success.  That  conducted  in  Virginia  has  shown  the  great  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  direct  steam  communication  between  her  ports  and  European  marts;  her  facili- 
ties for  conveying,  by  canal  and  water-carriage,  and  consequently,  at  least  expense  (along 
the  James  and  Kanawha  rivers  to  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi,  and  the  upper  Missouri),  the 
trade  and  emigration  of  the  Old  World,  to  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  West ;  and  has 
made  known  the  physical  geography  and  the  unsurpassed  mineral  treasures  of  the  State. 

(6.)  Renewed  surveys  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  are  in  progress  with  a  view  to  the  con- 
struction, at  no  remote  period,  of  a  ship-canal  to  unite  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans. 

(7.)  Observations  made  by  ofBcers  of  the  English  Cunard  steamships  show  that  the  cur- 
rent which  flows  over  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  has  a  moan  temperature  of  :ji)°  2'  Fahr., 
during  the  three  winter  months  falling  to  32",  .31°,  and  30°,  and  rising  in  September  to  52°. 

(8.)  Deep-sea  dredgings,  by  English  geologists,  in  the  Atlantic,  reveal  the  astonishing 
fact  that  animals  supposed  to  have  been  extinct  for  ages  are  found  living  at  great  depths  of 
the  ocean,  and  are  busily  engaged  beneath  the  waters  in  the  production  of  chalk,  limestone, 
and  other  rocks,  and  this  occurs  at  depths  once  believed  to  be  destitute  of  life. 

(9.)  About  a  year  ago,  an  expedition,  under  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  set  out  for  the  further  ex- 
ploration of  Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  in  Africa,  discovered  by  him  in  1864. 

(10.)  In  the  fall  of  181)9,  a  communication  from  Dr.  Livingstone,  the  celebrated  African 
traveller,  announced  the  probable  discovery  of  the  long  sought  sources  of  the  Nile  on  elevated 
lands  southwest  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  in  south  latitude,  between  10°  and  12°,  near  the  place 
indicated  by  Ptolemy  more  than  sixteen  centuries  ago.  Should  this  be  confirmed,  the  length 
of  the  Nile,  measured  by  a  straight  line  from  source  to  mouth,  will  be  more  than  twice  as 
great -as  that  of  the  Mississippi. 

(11.)  Rich  diamond-mines  have  been  discovered  in  Africa  800  miles  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

(12.)  Recent  researches  in  Australia  have  proved  the. existence  of  extensive  salt  lakes, 
soda  deposits,  and  trees  of  enormous  size.  Immense  beds-of  coal  have  been  lound  in  New 
Zealand,  which  will  go  far  toward  shaping  its  industrial  fnture. 

(13.)  In  1864,  a  Swedish  expedition  was  sent  by  the  government  into  the  Arctic  basin  to 
measure  an  are  of  the  meridian.  It  visited  the  southern  shores  of  Spitzbergen,  and,  while 
cruifing  around  that  island,  confirmed  the  existence  of  Gillis  Land,  first  seen,  in  1707,  by  a 
Dutch  sea  captain,  whose  name  it  bears.  (See  Gillis  Land  on  Me'rcator's  Map  of -the  World.) 
(14.)  In  1868,  a  German  expedition,  fitted  out  at  private  expense,  for  the  discovery  of  the 
Pole,  sailed  in  the  steamer  Germaida,  and  reached  the  high  point  of  81°  5'  N.  lat.  and  16°  E. 
long.  Froui  the  deck  of  the  Gerinania  the  oflicers  distinctly  descried,  with  the  telescope, 
the  peaks  of  Gillis  Land.  They  also  found  piles  of  drift-wood  twenty  feet  high  on  the  shores 
of  Spitzbergen,  cast  up  there  by  the  currents  of  the  ocean. 

(15.)  In  the  same  year,  another  Swedish  expedition  penetrated  as  far  as  81°  42'  N.  lat., 
and  brought  back  specimens  of  animal  life  at  a  depth  of  more  than  twenty-five  hundred 
fathoms,  taken  northwest  of  Spitzbergen.  This  expedition  found  drift-wood  and  vegetable 
productions  of  the  West  Indies  on  the  western  and  northwestern  coasts  of  Spitzbergen. 

(16.)  In  1869,  Captain  Hall  of  Cincinnati  returned  from  an  Arctic  voyage,  bringing  relics 
and  information  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  long-lost  and  ill-fated  expedition.  Congress  has  made 
an  appropriation  to  send  him  out  again  on  an  expedition  for  Polar  discoveries. 

(17.)  In  the  fall  of  1870,  an  Hawaiian  bark  reached  San  Francisco,  with  a  cargo  of  11,500 
seal-skins,  obtained  on  an  uninhabited  island  in  the  waters  adjacent  to  Alaska. 

(18.)  On  the  11th  of  September,  1870,  the  Arctic  Expedition  in  the  Gei-numia^  before 
alluded  to.  returned  home.  But  they  persevered,  and  in  1871  were  rewarded  willi  a  good 
view  (il  '■  Tiip;  Open  Ska  in  the  .Art-tic  Ocean." 

Note.— It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  geographical  science  that  further  explorations 
be  vigorously  prosecuted  for  discoveries  in  the  Antarctic  circle.  Within  this  circle  is  an  area 
equal  to  one-sixth  the  entire  land  surface  of  our  planet.  It  will  be  a  reproach  to  the  civilized 
world  to  permit  such  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  any  longer  to  remain  Terra  Incognita. 


TIME      DIAGRAM. 

Oeogk,\phicai.  Problf.ms.— I.  A  telegram  is  sent  west  from  Calcutta  to  St.  Louis.  It  is  dispatched  at 
6  A.  M.  on  the  morning  of  January  Ist,  I87I,  and  passing  over  wires  and  cables  is  delivered  in  1  hour  and  6 
minates  afterward  in  St.  Louts  :  can  you  tell  in  what  year  and  on  what  day  and  hour  it  reached  St.  Louis  ? 
(ArtM.  See  Time  Diagram.) 

11.  Three  friends  part  from  each  other  in  New  York  on  the  Ist  day  of  January,  1870.  A  sails  east  to  go 
round  the  world  ;  B  journeys  west,  also  to  go  round  the  world  ;  and  0  remains  in  New  York.  On  tlie 
evening  of  December  3Ist,  1870.  they  meet  again  in  New  York,  A  and  B  having  just  completed  the  circuit 
of  the  world.     How  many  days  has  eacli  seen  in  the  year?    Anii.  A,  .3fti  ;  B,  36t  ;  and  C,  365 


*  The  idea  of  connecting  the  two  great  oceans  was  first  suggested  by  the  Rev.  James 
Maury  of  Virginia,  in  a  letter  dated  Louisa  County,  Jan.  10,  1756.    In  this  letter  he  says : 

"  When  it  is  considered  how  far  the  eastern  branches  of  the  Mississippi  extend  eastward, 
and  how  near  they  come  to  the  navigable  rivers  which  empty  themselves  into  the  sea  that 
washes  our  shores  to  the  east,  it  seems  highly  probable  that  its  western  branches  reach  as 
far  the  other  way,  and  make  as  near  approaches  to  rivers  emptying  into  the  Pacific,  across 
which  a  short  and  easy  communication,  opens  itself  to  the  navigator  from  that  shore  of  the 
continent  unto  the  Eastern  Indies." 


The  currents  of  the  sea  and  the  prevailing  winds  of  the  eartli  have  already 
been  alluded  to.  Upon  a  knowledge  of  these  phenomena  depends  in  a  large 
measure  tlie  prosperity  of  all  commercial  nations.     (Sec  diagrams,  pp.  110,  132.) 

To  avail  himself  of  these  winds  and  currents  when  fair,  or  to  avoid  them  when 
adverse,  is  the  effort  of  the  master  of  every  sailinf/  vessel.  With  your  present  geo- 
graphical information  you  can  understand  why  the  routes  [jrojecied  on  the  map 
are  the  routes  usually  chosen. 

Questions, — Why  do  not  navigators  always  sail  in  a  direct  course  ?  What 
is  the  general,  direction  of  the  winds  in  the  northern  half  of  the  Torrid  Zone  ? 
What  in  the  southern  half?  What  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone  ?  In  the  South 
Temperate  Zone  ?  Is  there  any  exception  to  this  system  ?  Point  out  the  Mon- 
soon regions  of  India.     (See  p.  132.) 

The  constant  and  permanent  currents  of  the  sea  run  between  places  where 
t'  ,e  waters  are  warm  and  jilaces  where  the  waters  are  cold,  and  for  the  reason 


165 


TRADE  AND 

that  the  waters  of  the  sea  are,  because  cold  in  some  places,  warm  in  others,  in  i 
constant  state  of  unstable  equilibrium.  The  warm  Mozami)iquc,  the  Gulf  Streainj 
and  Japan  Current,  with  the  cold  Humboldt  and  other  Polar  Currents,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  unceasing  eflFort  of  nature  to  restore  the  equilibrium  which  is  iC 
constant  disturbance  by  the  unequal  distribution  of  heat  over  the  ocean. 

The  left-hand  edge,  both  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Japan  Current,  is  farthest  tc 
the  north  iu  autumn,  farthest  to  the  south  in  spriog.  In  what  zone  would  you 
sail  going  from  San  Francisco  to  Hong  Kong  ?  In  what  zone,  going  from  Shangi 
hai  to  San  Francisco  ? 

The  best  route  from  New  York  t«  Liverpool  is  with  the  Gulf  Stream,  which 
helps  vessels  along  at  the  average  rate  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles  a  day.  How! 
would  the  vessel  make  the  quickest  rctm-n  jiassagc?  Ans.  By  keeping  out  of  th< 
(!ulf  Stream,  going  north  of  it  in  the  fall,  when  there  are  no  icebergs,  or  south  of 
it  in  spring. 


^^AVIGATION. 

Tnicc  tlie  course  of  a  vessel  from  New  York  to  Aspinwall.  From  New  York 
J  San  Francisco.  Why  do  vessels  bound  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  after 
rossing  the  Equator  in  the  Atlantic,  stand  in  toward  the  coast  of  South  America  ? 
Vhy,  after  crossing  the  Ecpiator  in  tlie  Pacific,  do  they  steer  so  far  west?  Ans. 
ecausc  tliey  are  forced  by  the  northeast  Trade-Winds.  What  winds  bring  them 
ito  San  Francisco ?    Arui.  The  Counter-Trades. 

How  would  you  go  from  San  Francisco  to  tlie  Sandwich  Isles  ?  Wliat  winds 
ouid  assist  you  soon  aft('r  leaving  jKirt?  An».  The  northeast  Trades.  How 
ould  you  return  from  these  Islands  to  San  Francisco  ?  Wliy  do  you  go  nortii  ? 
M.  To  escape  the  Trades  that  are  now  head-winds,  -and  to  catch  the  Counter- 
mdcs.  IIow  do  you  go  from  New  York  to  Melbourne  ?  Ana.  By  the  Cape  of 
cod  Hope.  Why  would  you  remain  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic  until 
>u  cross  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  ?  Arts.  Because  the  southeast  Trade- Winds 
)m|)<;l  you. 


In  returning  from  Melbourne  to  New  York,  would  you  go  by  way  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  or  Cape  Horn  ?  Why  by  Cape  Horn  ?  Aiis.  Because  thus  you 
have  the  Counter-Trades  in  your  favor.  Wiiy  do  vessels  from  England  bound 
to  India,  Cliina,  and  Australia  go  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope?  Ans.  Because  the 
Counter-Trades  assist  tliem,  and  if  they  went  by  Cape  Horn  tlie  Counter-Trades 
would  be  against  them. 

Trace  the  course  of  a  vessel  going  from  Liverpool  to  India.  Why  does  she 
run  across  the  Atlantic  so  close  to  the  shores  of  South  America?  Ans.  Because 
the  Equatorial  Current  and  the  Trade- Winds  force  her  over. 

What  is  the  shortest  route  from  Liverpool  to  Bombay?  Am.  By  the  Suez 
CanaL  Through  what  waters  would  you  take  this  route  ?  How  would  you  go 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  by  rail  ?  Point  out  the  chief  Ocean  Telegraphic 
Cables  of  the  world.  Point  out  the  long-gought  Northwest  Passage.  Oapt. 
McClure,  of  the  British  Navy,  is  the  only  explorer  who  has  made  this  ixiesage.  ^ 


PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


In  this  Vocabulary  the  best  and  most  recent  authorities  have  been  consulted  for  both  spelling  anil  pronunciation,  a.  e.  i,  o,  (I,  are  to  l)e  pronounced  as  in  bate,  mete,  bite,  note, 
tube  :  a,  S,  I,  6,  ii,  as  in  bat,  bet,  bit,  not,  but.  The  sound  of  a  in  far  is  indicated  by  ah  ;  a  in  fall,  oy  aw  ;  o  in  rfo,  by  oo  ,•  g  in  get,  l)y  qk.  Tlie  nasal  sound  occurrinj;  in  some  Frencli 
words  is  indicated  by  N,  as  Toulon,  (too-loN) ;  this  nasal  sound  is  somewhat  like  that  of  ng  sounded  through  the  nose.    Letters  enclosed  by  ( )  indicate  pronunciation. 


Aalborg  (ol'borg). 
Aar  (alir). 
Aarhuus  (or'hoos). 
Abyssinia  (al)-is-sin'i-a). 
Ab-er-deen'. 
Abomey  (ab-o-mS')- 
Acapuico  (ah-kah-pool'ko). 
Acerra  (Italy)  (ali-clier'rah). 
Aconcagua  (ah-kon-kah'gwa). 
Adc^n  (a'den  or  ah'den). 
Adige  (ad'e-je ;  It.  ah'de-ja). 
Ad-i-ron'dack. 
Ad-ri-au-o'ple. 
Ad-ri-at'ic. 
Aegean  (S-jS'an). 
Afghanistan  (af-ghahn-is- 

tahn'). 
Af'ri-ca. 

Agulhas  (a-gool'yas). 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (aks-lah-shah- 

pel'). 
Ajaccio  (ah-yaht'cho). 
Alabama  (al-a-bah'ma). 
Aland  (ah'land). 
A-las'ka. 

Albans  (awl'bans). 
Al-be-marle'. 
Al  ci'ra  (Sp.  ahl-th5'rah). 
Aleutian  (al-oo'she-an). 
Ai'bi-on. 

Albuquerque  (alU-bu-ker'ka). 
Al'der-ney. 
Alen^on  (ah-len'son). 
A-lep'po. 
Algiers  (al-j5rz'). 
Al-''(;'i-ia. 
Al-li-gha'ny. 

Allaliabad  (ahl-la-hah-bahd')- 
Almaden  (ahl-mah-den'). 
ANace  (ahl-sass';. 
Altai  (ahl-tl'). 
Altamaha  (al-ta-ma-hawO- 
Altona  (al'to-na).  '    • 

Altmuhl(ahlt'muhl)..  .    '   ■ 
Amarapui'a  (ahm-ah-ra-p'u'ra). 
Am'boise  (Fr.  ahN'bwahz). 
Ara-boy'na. 
Am'i-ens    (Pr.    pron.  ah-me- 

ahlST'). 
Am'a-zon. 
A  moo  (ah-moo'). 
Anioor  (ah-moor'). 
Anioy  (ah'moy). 
Am'ster-dain. 
Anadyr  (an-a-der'). 
Anam  (a-nam  or  a-nahm'). 
Anaphy  (ah-nah'le). 
An-da-man'. 
An'des  (an'dez). 
An-dor'ra. 
An'do-ver. 
An-dros-cog'gin. 
Angara  (an-gah'rah). 
An>;lesey  (ang'gl-se). 
Ann-ap'o-lis. 
Ann  Ar'bor. 
Antigua  (ahn-te'gwah). 
Ant-arc'tic. 
An-ti-cos'ti. 
An-til'les  (or  ahn-t51'). 
Ap-pa-lach'ee. 
Ap-pa-la-chi-cola. 
Ap'en-nines. 
A-ra'bi-a. 
Ar'ab. 
Ar'a-rat. 
Ar-au-ca'nia. 
Araguay  (ah-rah-gwi')- 
Archangel  (ark-3u'jel). 
Archipelago  (ark-i-pel'a-go). 
Arc'tic. 

Ardennes  (ar-d6n'). 
Arequipa  (ah-ra-kee'pah). 
Argentine  (ar'jen-t6n). 
Ar-kan'sas. 

Armagh  (ar'mah  or  ar-mah'). 
Artois  (ahr-twah'). 
As-cen'sion. 
Ash-an'tee. 
Asia  (a'shi-ah). 


As'gam  (or  ae-samO. 

As-sump'tion. 

As-tra-khan'. 

Atacama  (ah-tah-kah'mah). 

Atchafalaya  (ach-af-a-ll'a). 

Ath-a-bas'ca. 

At-lan'tic. 

Augustine  (au-gus-tenO . 

Aus-tral-a'si-a. 

Aus-tra'li-a. 

Aus'tri-a. 

Auvergne  (o-vairn'). 

AurungabadCo-rung-ga-bahd'). 

Avignon  (ah-vSn-yoN')- 

Ava  (ah'vah). 

Az'ov. 

Az-ores'. 


Balbec  (bahl'bec). 
Bab-el-Man'deb. 
Baden  (bah  den  or  bad'en). 
Ba-ha'ina. 

Bahia  Honda  (bah-6'ah  Ou'da). 
Bahrein  (hah-rau')- 
Baikal  (M'kahl). 
IJalize  (bah-leez'). 
Balkan  (Dald-kahn'). 
Biilmoial  (l):ilil-mn'rahl). 
Baltic  (bawl'tic). 
Balzac  (bahl-zahk'). 
Balaklava  (bah-hli-klah'vah). 
Baug-kok'  or  Ban-kok'. 
Barataria  (bah-ra-tah'ri-a). 
Bar-ba'does  (-doz). 
Barcelona  (bar-se-lo'nah). 
Barnaul  (har-nowl'). 
Ba-ta'vi-a. 

Baton  Kouge  (bat'un  roozh). 
Ba-va'ri-a. 

•Bayonne  (bah-yon'). 
Bayou  la  Fourche  (bi'oo  lah 

foorsh). 
Beaufort  (bu'fort). 
Beirut  (ba'-root). 
Beled-el-jerid    (bel'ed-el-jer'- 

eed). 
Bclem  (be-lem'  or  ba-lcN'). 
Bel'gi-um. 
Belleisle  (bel-Ile'). 
Bel-oo-chis-tan'  (-tahn). 
Bel-grade'. 
Benares  (ben-ah'rez). 
Bengal  (ben-gawl'). 
Benguela  (ben-ga'lah). 
Benm  (ben-6n'). 
Ber'gen. 
Ber-mu'das. 
Berne  (bern). 
Behring  (beer'ing). 
Ber-nard'. 

Besanfon  (ba-sahn-8oN0. 
Biafra  (bg-af'rah). 
Bid'de-ford. 

Binghamton  (bing'am-ton). 
Bir'mah. 
Biscay  (bis'ky). 
Blenheim  (blen'im). 
Bogota  (bo-go-lah'). 
Bo-he'mi-a. 
Boise  (bois). 
Bokhara  (bo-kah'ra). 
Bo-liv'i-a. 
Bom-bay'. 

Bonifacio  (bon-e-fah'cho). 
Bonin  (bo-nSn'). 
Bordeaux  (bor-doO- 
Bor'ne-o. 
Born'holm. 
Bos'po-rns. 
Both'ni-a. 

Bourbon  (boor'bon). 
Bosna  Serai  (boz'nah  sei"-!'). 
Bonrges  (boorzh). 
Brah-ma-poo'tra. 
Brazil  (brah-zil'). 
Brazos  (hrah'zOs). 
Brem'en  (in  D.  S.  BrS'men). 
Bres'lau. 

Brescia  (bresh'e-ah). 
Brisbane  (briz'bane). 


Britain  (brit'tn). 

Bucharest  (buck-a-rcsf). 

Bu'da. 

Buenos     Ayres       (bway'nos 

I'res). 
Bul-ga'ri-a. 
Bushire  (boo-sheer'). 
Butte  (bQt). 


Cabool  (kah-bool'). 

Ca'diz. 

C'a'en  (or  kahN). 

Caf-fra'ri-a. 

Ca-ha\v'ba. 

Cairo  (ki'ro  ;  in  U.  S.  ka'ro). 

Calais      (kal'is ;      Fr.     i)ron, 

cal-ay'). 
Calcasieu  (kahl'ka-shoo). 
Caldora  (kal-da'rah). 
Cal-i-lor  iii-a. 
Call  111    (kabl-lah'O,  or    kahl- 

yah'o). 
Cam'bray. 
Can'a-da. 
Ca-na'ry. 
Canda-har'. 
Ca-nav'cr-al. 
Can-ta'bri-a. 

Can-ton'  (in  U.  S.  can'ton). 
Cape  Bre'ton  (or  brit'tn). 
(;aracas  (cah-rah'cas). 
Car-pen-ta'ri-a. 
Carib-be'an. 
Carta-ge'na. 
Cas'pi-an. 
Cassiquiare   (cah-see-kee-ah'- 

ra). 
Cau'ca-sus. 
Caxamarca        (cah-hah-mar'- 

kahK 
Cavenne  (kl-en'). 
Celebes  (set'e-bcK). 
Ceph-a-lo'ni-a. 
Ceutu  (>u'tah). 
Ceylon  (sC'lon,  or  se-lon'). 
Cevennes  (sa-ven'). 
Chagres  (chah'g'res). 
Chartres  (shartr). 
Cbauiplain  (sham-piane'). 
Chary bdis  (ka-rib'dis). 
Chat-ta-hoo'che. 
Cha;idiere  (sho-de-air'). 
Chelsea  (chel'se). 
(Chenango  (she-nang'go). 
Cherbourg  (sher-boorg'j. 
Cheyenne  (she-en').  • 
Cherapungee     (cher-ah-poon- 

je'). 
Ches'a-peake. 
Chicago  (she-caw'go). 
Chili  (chilOe). 

Chimborazo  (chim-bo-rah'zo). 
Chi'na. 
Chin'cha. 

Chihuahua  (che-wah'vvah). 
Chil-li-cmh'g. 
Chinese  (clil-n5z'). 
Chip'pe-wa. 

Chnstiania  (kris-te-ah'ne-ahV 
Chuquibamba  (chu-ke-bahm'- 

bah). 
Chuquisaca  (chu-ke-sah'kah). 
Cienfuegos  (se-en-fwa'gOs). 
Cincinnati  (sin-sin-nah'ti). 
Co-an'za. 

Cobija  (ko-be'hah). 
Coahuila  (kn-ah-w5'lah). 
Cologne  (kn-lone'). 
Colorado  (col-o-rah'do). 
Cojutepeque  (ko-hu-ta-pa'ka). 
Comayagna  (ko-ml-ah'gwa). 
Comorin  (kom'o-rin). 
Con'chos. 

Connecticnt  (con-net'i-cut). 
Con-Ptan-ti-no'ple. 
Concord  (kong'kord) 
Constantine  (kon'stahn-tfin). 
Copiapo  (ko-pe-ah'po). 
Co-penha'gen. 
Coquimbo  (ko-kSm'bo). 


Cor'do-va. 

Corpus  Christi  (kris'tJ). 

Cor'si-ca. 

Cor-ri-en'tes. 

Coseguina  (kos-a-gwe'nah). 

Costa  Kica  (kos'tali  re'kali). 

Cotopaxi  (co-toi)ax'i). 

Cracow  (krah'ko). 

Croustadt  (krOn'staht). 

Covington  (kuv'iug-ton). 

Crim'e-a. 

Cu'ba. 

Ciievas  de  Vera  (kwa'vah  dii 

va'rah). 
Ciimana  (ku-niah-nah'j. 
Cuiacoa  (ku-ra-so'a). 
Ciitch  (kQtch). 
Cuzco  (koos'ko). 
Cyclades  (sik'la-dCz). 
Cy -clone'. 
Cy'prus. 


Dah-lon'ega. 

Dafu  (dah-too'). 

Dakota  (dah-ko'tah). 

Dahomey  ((iahho'ma). 

Dalton  (iiaurtou). 

Damios  (dah'mi-Oz). 

Dant'zic. 

Dan'ube. 

Dar-da-nelles'. 

Darfur  (dar-foor'). 

Da-ri-en'. 

Dauphinc  (dO-fe'na). 

Dec'can. 

Del'a-ware. 

Delhi  (del'hl  in  U.  S.;  del'e  in 

Asia). 
Den'mark. 

Des  Moines  (da  moin'). 
De-troit'. 
Dhwawalaghiri(da-wol-a-ghe'- 

re). 
Diamantina   (deah-mahn-te'- 

nah). 
Dieppe  (de-5p'). 
Dijon  (de-zhoN'). 
Dnieper  (ne'i)er). 
Dniester  (ne^'ter). 
Do'fra-ficld. 

Dominica  (doni-e-ne'kah). 
Dona  Ana  (do'nah  ah'nah). 
Dor'thes-ter. 
Dorpat  (dor'paht). 
Douai  (doo-a'). 
Douro  (du'ro). 
Droutheim  (dront'Im). 
Drave  (drahv). 
Dres'den. 

Dubuque  (du-book'). 
Dumfries  (dum-fr5z'). 
Dun-bar'. 

Duncansby  (dunk'auz-by). 
Dun'kirk. 
Dus'sel-dorf. 
Dwina  (dwe'nah). 


E'bro. 

Ecuador  (ek-wa-dOr'). 

Ed^ecumbe  (ej'kum). 

Ed'in-burgh  (or  -burro). 

Ed'is-to, 

El'ba. 

Elburz  (el-boorz'). 

EI  Dorado  (do-rah'do). 

Rl  Paso  (pah'so). 

Elbe  (elb). 

England  (ing'gland). 

Erie  (e're). 

Eseequibo  (cs-se-ke'bo). 

Esquimaux  (es'-ke-mo). 

Estacado  (es-tah-kah'do). 

Estramadura(es-tra-mah-doo'- 

rah). 
Etienne  (a-te-6n'). 
Eu-phra'tes. 
Eure  (Are). 
Eu-re'ka. 


Eux'ine. 
Kv'ans-ville. 
Ev'o-ra. 
Ex'e-ter. 
Eyre  (air). 


Faenza  (fah-en'zah). 

Falkland  (fawk'land). 

Falmouth  (fai'mnth). 

Fa 'roe. 

Fayal  (O-awl';  Port,  fl-ahl'). 

Fee'jee. 

Felipe  (lil-IG'pa). 

Fernandina  (-de'nah). 

FiM-rara  (I'er-rah'rah). 

Ferrol  (fer-rfll'). 

Fez'zan . 

Fiesole  (fe-es'o-lS). 

FiuL'al  (flng-gawK). 

Finisterre  (fln-is-tair'). 

Fiord  (fe-ord'). 

Fiumc  (fe-oo'mS). 

Flcir'enre. 

Flor'i-da. 

Fond-du-I-ac'. 

For-mo'sa 

Foocboo  (foo-choo'). 

Franche  Comtfi  (fraNsh  koN- 

ta'). 
Fnink'fort. 
Fred'c-ricks-burg. 
Freiburg  (fri'boorg). 
Fucino  (It.  foo-che'no). 
Kiiegos  (foo-a'gOs). 
Fu'nen. 
Furneaux  (foor-no'). 


G. 

Gal-a-|)a'gos. 

Galatz  (gab-lahtz'). 

Galicia  (gal-ish'e-a). 

C.allas  (gsdil'ahz). 

Gallinas  (gal-lee'nas). 

Ga-Ie'na. 

GanL'es  (gan'jCz). 

Garonne  (gah-ron'). 

Gauley  (gau'll). 

Ge-ne'va. 

Gen-es-see'. 

Gen'oa. 

Geor'gi-a. 

Geral  (zha'rahl). 

Ger'ma-ny. 

Ghauts  (gauts). 

Gib-ral'tar. 

Gila  ( jG'la  or  hS'la). 

Gloucester  (glos'ter). 

Go'a. 

Gobi  (gO'be). 

Godavcry  (godah'ver-I). 

Gon'dai-. 

Gracias  a  DIos  (grah'se-as  ah 

de'Os). 
Granada  (gra-nah'dah). 
Greenwich    (grgn'ij  or  grGn'- 

Itch) 
Grecn'land. 
Greitz  (gritz). 
Gricsbach  (grGs'bak). 
Grisons  (gre-zoN'). 
Gros  Ventres  (grO  vaNtr'). 
Guadalaxara     (gwah-dah-lah- 

hah'rah). 
Guaymas  (gwi'mahs). 
Guadalquiver  (gaw-dal-quiv'- 

er). 
Guadalupe  (sraw-'da-lupe). 
Guadiana  (L'avv-de-ah'na). 
Guanahanitu'wah-nah-hahsT). 
Giianaxiiato  (gwah-nah-hwair 

to). 
Gnardafui  (gwar-dah-fwfl'). 
Gnatemalji  (gwahta-mah'lah). 
(iiiavaquil  (gwi-ah-keel'). 
Guelph  (gwelf), 
Guiana  (ge-an'ah). 
Guinea  (<rhin'e). 
Guvandotie  (ghlan-dof). 


Hack'cn-sack. 

Iladramaut  (liahd-rah-mowt'). 

Hague  (bag). 

Hainim  dil-nan'). 

Ilartz,  or  Harz  (harts). 

Hakodacli  (hahko-dah'di). 

Ha'gers-town. 

Ilal'i-fax. 

Ilam'mer-fest. 

Ilam'burg. 

Ilan'o-ver. 

Harbor  Grace  (grabs). 

Hal'ter-as. 

Havana  (ha-van  nah). 

Havr<'  (hah'vre). 

Haverhill  (ha'ver-il ;  in  Eng., 
hav'er-il). 

Hawaii  (hah-wah'e). 

Hayti  (ha'tl). 

Heb'ri-des  (-dCz). 

Hec'la. 

Hel'go-land. 

Helena  (hel'ena.  Ark.;  he-lC 
na,  for  the  island  St.  Hele- 
na). 

Hel'sing-fors. 

Hen-lo'pen. 

Her-cu-la'ne-utn. 

Hcrnbiit  (hem'hoot). 

Himalaya  (hitn-a-la'ya). 

Hin-ddo-koosir. 

Ilin-dostan'.  or  Hin-dii-stan'. 

Hoang-Ho  (\\hang'-ho). 

Hoi  (ho'e). 

Ilol'Iand. 

llcilslein  (hnl'stCn). 

llolyoke  (hOl'ynk). 

Hondu'ras. 

Hong  Kong'. 

Ilohdliihi  (ho-no-Ioo'loo). 

lli>ii>^-n-t(m'ic  (boos-). 

lloti-ion  (hfl^'ton). 

Iliiallaga  (hwal-yah'gah). 

HuaiHU'o  (wahn'oo-ko). 

Hue  (boo'a). 

Hni-lva  (wel'vah). 

Hum'boldt. 

Ilun'ga-ry. 

Ilu'ron. 

Hyderabad  (hl-dcr-a-bahd'). 


Ice'land. 
I'da. 
l'(la-bo. 

iL'iiape  (e-g\vah'pa). 
Illinuis  (il-lin-oiz  or  -oi). 
Illimani  (Cl'ye-mah'ne). 
In-(li-aii'a. 
In-di-an-ap'o-lis. 
In-tli-a-no'la. 
Indies  (in'diz), 
Iii'dus. 

Innsbiuck  (ins'prook). 
Interlacken  (in'ter-lahk-en). 
In-verness'. 
I-o'ni-an. 
I'o-wa. 
Ire'land. 

Irkutsk  (ir-kool8k'). 
Ir'ra-wad-dy. 
Iscre  (G-zair'). 
Iser  (G'zer). 
Is'lip. 
Ispa-han'. 
It'a-ly. 
I-ta^'ca. 

Itapna  (G-tah-j)oi)'ii'.iV 
Il(m  (Fr.  G-toN). 
Ivifa  (C-ve'sahj. 
IztarcihuatI  (J.-tahk-se- 

bwahtl'). 

J. 

Jaen  (hah-en'). 
Jalapa  (liab-Iah'pab). 
Jalamnit'za  (yal-). 
Jamaica  (ja-ma'k«h>. 
Jan  Mayen  (yahn  mi'en). 


/I, 


f. 


1/.'^    V 


r 


VOCABULARY. 


i55 


Ja-pan'. 

Jipura  (hah-poo'rah). 

Jassy  (yas'sl). 

Java  (jah'vah). 

Jfb'el  Sham'mer. 

Je'na  (or  ya'nah). 

Je-m'sa-lem. 

Jiloco  (he-lo'ko). 

Joannes  (zho-ahn'nes). 

Jo'li-et. 

Jorallo  (ho-rool'yo). 

Jn-an  Fer-nan'dez. 

Ju'im  de  Fii'ca. 

Jii5;;<!rnant. 

Juniata  (ja-nl-ah'tah). 

Jiin^'fran  (yoong'frow). 

Jn'ra  (Fr.  zhu-rah')- 

Jut'land. 

E. 

Kafir  (kah'fir). 

Kalahari  (kah-lah-hah're). 

K;il'a-ma-zoo. 

Kamt-cliat'ka. 

Kanawha  (kan-aw'wah). 

Kan-da-har'. 

Kan-kakee'. 

Kan'sas  (-zas). 

Karl'stadt. 

Ka?h'gar. 

Ka:?-ka^<'ki-a. 

Ka-tah'din. 

Kel-at'  (or  -aht). 

K'-'ni-a. 

Kon-tuck'y. 

Kc'o-kiik. 

Kur^ruelcn  (kerg'e-len). 

Ki--wee'naw. 

Khartoom'. 

Khiva  (kee'vah). 

Kiachta  (ke-ahk'tah). 

Ki.^l  (kel). 

Kii'v  (ke-ev'). 

Kilimandjaro        (kil-e-mahn- 

jar'o*. 
Kiii'^'<'ton. 
Kirirhiz  (kir-ghSz'). 
Ki-'-in^-en. 
Kiusiii  (kee-oo'se-oo). 
Kukan  (ko-kahn'). 
Ko'inorn. 
Kon'iu'^*-bnr<j. 
Konka  (kon'kah). 
Kor  do-fan', 
Kionstadt  (krSn'staht). 
Kiien  Lun  (kweii  loon). 
Kurdistan  (koor-dis-tahn'). 
Kurile  (koo-ril'  or  koo'ril). 
Kn'ro  Si'wo  (sS'wo). 
Knr-ra-chee'. 
Kwich'pak. 


I.ialand  (law'land,  or  Id'and). 

Libra-dor'. 

[.achen  (lah'ken) 

La-'cji-dive. 

I..a-do'<;a. 

La-drones'. 

[..a  Granire  (-arranj). 

La  Oiiavra  (lah  cwi'rah). 

Lahore  (lah-hrirO. 

Lahn  Hah-hoo'). 

La  M  iiifh  I  (-mahn'chah). 

Lande:*  (laNdzl. 

La  Plat  I  (lah  plah'tah). 

Lap'land. 

Laramie  (lar'a-me). 

Lar<'!<a. 

Lausanne  (lo-zahn'). 

Le^'hom. 

Leip'KJc. 

Lena  (le'nah). 

Lewes  (lu'es). 

Li-ydcn  (16'den  or  H'den). 

Li-be'ri-a. 

Lichtenfels  (lik'ten-fels). 

Liege  rlej). 

I.ima  (le'inah). 

Limoijes  de-mrjzh'). 

Linyanti  (lin-yahn'te). 

Lipari  (lip'a-re). 

Lis'bon. 

Liv'er-pool. 

Llano  E;staca<lu      (lyah'no  es- 

tah-kah'do). 
Lo'tos. 
Lo-fo'den. 
Loire  (Iwahr). 
Ix)m'bar-dy. 
Lo'rnoiid. 

Los  An«ele«  (10s  an'jel-es). 
Lon^'h  flok) 
Louisville    (loo'is-vil  or  lool- 

vil). 
Louisiana  (loo-'zt-ah'na), 
Low'ell. 
Lii'bec. 
Lii'k'now. 
Lri-pah'ta. 

Luzon  (loo-zOn'  or  -zon'). 
Ly'ons. 

M. 

Maas  Cmaha). 
Macao  (ma-cah'o). 


Ma-cas'8ar. 

Mack-en'zie. 

Mack-i-naw'. 

Mad-a-gas'car. 

Madeira  (ma-de'ra). 

Ma-dras'. 

Mad-rid'. 

Maes tricht  (mahs'trikt). 

Ma<;-da-le'na. 

Ma<;alhaens     (mah-gahl-yah'- 

en?). 
Magellan     (ma-jel'lan  or  maj- 

el-lau'). 
Matjiriore  (mahd-jo'ra). 
Maimaitchin  (ml-ml-chin'). 
Mal-a-bar'. 
Ma-lac'ca. 
Mara-<ra 
Ma-lay'si-a. 
Mal'dive. 

Mamore  (mah-mo'r5). 
Mauil'la  or  Ma-nil'a. 
Mant-choo-ri'a. 
Marajo  (mah-rah-zho'). 
Mar-an-hara'. 

Marifarita  (mar-gah-re'tah). 
Mar'mo-ra. 

Marquesas  (mar-ka'zas). 
Mar-a-cay'bo. 
Marseille  (mar-sal'y"). 
Mar-ta-ban'. 
Ma'ry-land. 
Mass-a-chu'setts. 
Mat  a-mo'ras. 
Ma-tan'zas. 
Mata-pan'. 

Mauch  Chunk  (mawk  chungk) 
Mau'mee. 

Mauritius  (mau-rish'e-us). 
Ma-zat'lan. 
Mayenne  (niah-ycn'). 
Mechlin  (mek'lin). 
Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an. 
Mec'ca. 
Medina  (me-de'nah  in  Ar.,  me- 

dl'nah  in  U.  S.) 
Mell)onrne  (mel'burn). 
Menam  (ma-nahm'J. 
Me-nan'. 

Men'ho  (or  meu'yo). 
Metz  (mets  or  mSce). 
Mcuse  (raflz). 
Mer'ri-mack. 
Messina  (mes-se'uah). 
Mex'i-co. 
Miami  (ml-am'f). 
Michigan  (mish'I-gan). 
Mil'an. 

Mikado  (ml-kah'do). 
Mill'edi,'e-ville. 
Mindanao  (min-dah-nab'o). 
Mis-.»is-sip'pi. 
Mis-sou'ri. 
Mobile  (mo-bcel'). 
.Mocha  (mo'kah). 
Mo-de'na. 
Mo'hawk. 
Mol-da'vi-a. 
Mo-noc'a-cy. 
Mont  Cenis  (cen'I). 
Mo-hic'ca. 
Mon-f;o'li-a. 
Mo-non-sa-he'la. 
Mon-ro'vi-a. 
Monterey  (mont-C-ril'). 
Mont-e-vid'e-o. 
Mont-gom'ery. 
Montpelier  (mont-pCl'yer). 
Montreal  (mon-tre-awr;. 
Mo-re'a. 
Mo-roc'co. 
Moscow  (mos'kn). 
Mozambique  (mo-zam-b5k'). 
Munich  (mu'nik). 
Mur'ray. 
Mus-cat'. 

N. 

Nac-og-do'ches. 

Nagasaki  (nah-gah-eah'ke). 

Namaqua  (nah-mah'qua). 

Nan'ling. 

Nan-king'. 

Nantes  (nants). 

Nan-tuck'et. 

Naples  (na'plz). 

Nar-ra-gan'sett. 

Nar-bonne'. 

Nash'vUle. 

Na-tal'. 

Natch'ez. 

Natch-1-toch'ce. 

Navarino  (nah-vah-re'no). 

Navarre  (nah-vahr'). 

Ne-bras'ka. 

Neil-gher'ry. 

Nemours  (ua-moor'). 

Ne-o'sho. 

Nip'is-sing. 

Ner-bud'dah. 

Nueces  fnooa'ses). 

Neuchatel  (nn-shah-tel'). 

Neuse  (iifls). 

Nevada  (ne-vah'dah). 

Newark  (nu'ark). 

New-found'land   (or  nu'fund- 

land). 
New  Granada  (grah-nah'dah). 


New  Or'le-ans. 

New  Zea'land. 

Ngami  (n'gah'me). 

Ni-ag'a-ra. 

Nicaraugua  (nik-a-rah'gwah). 

Nic'o-bar. 

Niemen  (ne'men). 

Ni'ger  (nl-jer). 

Ning'po. 

Nipn-on'. 

Nij'ni  Nov'go-rod  (nizh'ni). 

Nisraes  (nem). 

Nor'wich  (or  nor'ich  in  U.S. ; 

nor'ij  in  Eng.) 
Nor'way. 
No'va  Sco'ti-a. 
No'va  Zem'bla. 
Nu'bi-a. 
Nyanza  (nl-alin'zah). 


Oahn  (wah'hoo). 

Oaxaca  (wah-hah'kah). 

Obe. 

Oceania  (o-she-a'ni-ah). 

Ochotsk  (i)'kolsk). 

Oc-mul'gee. 

O-co'nee. 

O'der. 

O-des'sa. 

Og'dens-burg. 

O-gee'chee. 

O-hi'o. 

O-ke-cho'bee. 

0-ke-fi-no'kee. 

Old'en-burg. 

Omaha  (o-ma-haw'). 

Oneida  (o-nl'dah). 

Onondaga  (on-hu-dah'gah). 

On-ta'ri-o. 

Ontonagon  (on-to-nagh'on). 

O-por'to. 

Opelousas  (op-eloo'sas). 

Ovense  (o-ven'sa). 

Orizaba  (o-re-sah'bah). 

Or'e-gon. 

O-ri-no'co. 

Ork'ney. 

Or'muz. 

Or'te-gal. 

0-?age'. 

Osaka  (o-sah'kah). 

Osceola  (o8-e-o'la). 

Os-tend'. 

Os-we'go. 

Ottawa  (ot'ta-wah). 

O-zark'. 

Ox'ford. 


Pa-cif'ic. 

Pais'ley. 

Pa-lem-bang'. 

Pa-ler'mo. 

Pal'es-tine. 

Palo  Alto  (pahio  ahl'to). 

Pam'li-co. 

Para'pas. 

Pan-a-ma'  (-mah). 

Papua  (pap'ii-ah). 

Para  (pah-rah'). 

Paraguay       (pah-rah-gwa'  or 

pali-ran-gwl'). 
Par-a-mar'i-bo. 
I'arana  (pah-ruh-nah'). 
Parime  (pah-re'mS). 
Par'is. 
Par'ma. 

Pas-ca-goula  (-goo-). 
Pas-sa'ic. 

Pas-sa-ma-quod'dy. 
Pat-a-go'ni-a. 
Pecos  (pa'kOs). 
Pe-dee'. 
Pe-king'. 
Peling  (pa-ling'). 
Pembina  (pein'be-nah). 
Penine  (pen'Gn). 
I  Penn-syl-va'ni-a. 
Pe-nob'scot. 
Pen-ga-co'la. 
Pe-o'ri-a. 
Per-nam-bu'co. 
Perouee  (pe-roozO. 
Persia  (pcr'shi-ah). 
Peru  (pe-roo'). 
Pesth  (pgst). 
Petropniilowski    (pa-tro-pan- 

lowsk'i). 
Pic  Anethou  (pEk  ah-na-too') 
Pictou  (ptk-too'). 
I'isa  (pe'zah). 
Piura  (pT-oi'Vah). 
Placeiitia  (pla-sen'shl-ah). 
Plaquemine  (plak-mGn'.) 
Plateau  (plah-to') 
Poitiers  (poi-l5rz'). 
Popayan  (popah-yahn'). 
Po-po-cat-a-petK. 
Port  an  Prince  (port  o  prins). 
Port'land. 

Porto  Rico  (port'o  re'ko). 
Portsmouth  (ports'muth). 
Port'u-gal. 
Po-to'mac. 

Potosi  (po-to-se'or  po-to'se). 
Poughkeepsie  (po-kip'se). 


Prague  (prSg). 

Prairie  du  Chien      (pra're  du 

ehen). 
Presidio  (pra-ze'de-o). 
Provence  (pro-vahNs'). 
Prussia  (prush'i-ah). 
Pruth  (prooth). 
Puebia  (pweb'lah). 
Puntii  (poon'tah). 
Purus  (poo'roos). 
Puerto   Principe        (pwer'to 

prin'se-pa). 
Pulaski  (pu-las'ke). 
Pyr'en-ees. 

Q. 

Quebec  (kwe-bek'). 
Quentin  (kwen'lin). 
(Juereiaru  (ka-ra'tah-ro). 
Quiloa  (ke'lo-ah). 
Quincy  (kwin'cy). 
Quito  (ke'to). 


Racine  (ra-85n'). 

Rac-oon'. 

Raleigh  (raw'le). 

Kan-goon'. 

Rap-pa-han'nock. 

Rap-id-an'. 

Rar'i-tan. 

Reading  (red'ing). 

Reims  or  Rheims  (rSraz). 

Reikiavik  (rl'kl-a-vik). 

Reuss  (rQs). 

Richelieu  (re'she-loo  or  rSsh'- 

loo). 
Rideau  (re-do') 
Rio  Pecos  (re'o  pa'kOs). 
Riviere  du  Loup    (re-ve-air' 

du  loo). 
Rhine  (rln). 

Rhode  Island  (rOd  i'laud). 
Rhone  (rOu). 
Riga  (re'gah). 
Rio  de  la  Plata  (re'o  dil  lah 

plah'tah). 
Rio    Grande    (rl'o    grand    in 

Texas  ;  rC'o  grahn'da  in  S. 

America) . 
Rio  Janeiro  (rl'o  ja-nS'ro  or 

rS'o  jah-na'ro). 
Rio  Negro  U'G'o  na'gro). 
Ro-an-oke'. 
Rochclle  (ro-shel'). 
Roch'es-ter. 
Ro-ma'ni-a. 
Roque  (rOk). 
Rotter-dam. 
Ron-doul'. 

]{ouen  (roo-en' or  roo-oN'). 
Kiiniihuasi  (roo-me-hwah't-e). 
Russia  (rush'i-ah).  • 
Rustschuk  (rooB-chook'). 


Sabine  (sah-bSn').    . 

Sa'ble. 

Saco  (saw'ko). 

Sac-ra-raen'to. 

Sadowa  (sah-do'ah). 

Saghalien  (sag-hal'i-en  or  sag- 

ha-15'en). 
Saguenay  (sahg-e-nS'). 
Sahara  (sah-hah'rah). 
Salado  (sah-lah'do). 
Salimoes  (sah-le'mOz). 
^aline  (sah-lCn'). 
Salonica  (sah-lon-e'kah). 
Samana  (sah-mah'nah  or  eah- 

mah-nali'). 
Samoiedes  (sam-oi-edz'). 
Han  Diego  (de-a'go). 
San-dus'ky. 
San    Joaquin     (sahn       wah- 

ken'). 
San  Jose  (sahn  ho-sS'). 
San  Marino  (raah-re'no). 
Saone  (son). 
Sar-a-nac'. 
Sedan  (seh-dahn'). 
Solferino  (sol-fa-re'no). 
Sar-gas'so. 
Sel'kirk. 
Sligo  (sle'go). 

St.  Augustine  (au-gus-t6n'). 
St.  Clair  (klair). 
St.  Do-min'go. 
St  E-li'as. 
St.  Ile-le'na. 
St.  Law'rence. 
St,  Louis  (loo'is  or  loo'e). 
St,  Paul  de  Lo-an'do. 
Si.  Pe'ters-burg. 
St.  Pierre  (saint  p5r  or  saN 

pe-air'). 
San  Pran-cis'co. 
San 'gar. 
San  Bias  (blah). 
San  Lu'cas. 
San  Sal'va-dor. 
San'ta  Fe'  (H). 
San-tee'. 

Santiago  (sahn-tl-ah'go). 
Sar-a-to'ga. 
Sarawak  (sah-rah-wahk'). 


Sar-din'i-a. 

Sas-katch'a-wan. 

Sa-van'nah. 

Sault  St.  Marie  (soo  s6nt  ma'- 

rl). 
Save  (sahv  or  silv). 
Savoy  (sav'oy  or  eah-voy'). 
Sax'o-ny. 
Scheldt  (skelt). 
Schuylkill  (skool'kil). 
Schoharie  (sko-hiSr'e). 
Scio  (si'o). 
Scioto  (si-o'to). 
Scot'land. 
Scutari  (skoo'tah-re  or  ekoo- 

tah're). 
Se-bas'to-pol. 
Seine  (sSn). 
Sen'e-ca. 
Senegal  (sen'e-gawl  or  sen-e- 

gawl'). 
Se-ne-gara'bi-a. 
Sin-o'pe. 

Shanghai  (shang'hl). 
Shen-an-do'ah. 
Shet'land. 
Si'am. 
Si-be'ri-a. 
Sic'i-ly. 
Sierra  Leone  (se-er'rah  le-o'- 

ue). 
Sierra  Madre  (se-er'rah  mah'- 

dra). 
Sierra  Morena  (se-er'rah  mo- 

ra'nah). 
Si'hon. 

Simoda  (sl-mo'dah). 
Sing-a-pore'. 
Smyr'na. 

Solimoes  (so-le'mOz). 
Soo-loo'. 

Soongaria  (soon-gah'ri-a). 
Sou-dan'. 
South  Car-o-li'na. 
Sorata  (so-rah'tah). 
Stanovoi  (stahn-no-voi'). 
Staunton    (stSn'ton    in  Va.  ; 

stSn'ton    or    stahn'ton    in 

Eng,) 
Stet'iin, 
Steu'beu-ville. 
Stock'holm. 
Stutt'gard, 

Suleiman  (soo-lii-mahn'). 
Sungari  (sun-gah're). 
Sural  (soo-raf). 
Surinam  (soo-ri-nam'). 
Suwanee  (su-wah'ne). 
Su'ez. 

Sumatra  (soo-mah'trah 
Sus-que-han'nah. 
Swe'dcn. 
Switz'er-land. 
Syd'ney. 
Sy'ra. 

Syracuse  (sir'a-kasX 
Syr'i-a. 


Tabago  (tah-bah'go). 

Ta'gus. 

Tahiti  (tah-he'te). 

Tah-le-quah'. 

Tal-le-lias'see. 

Tal-la-poo'sa. 

'i'allulah  (tal-u'la), 

Tampi'co  (tam-pe'ko). 

Taiiaiiarivoo  (tah-nah-nah-re- 

voo'). 
Tanaro  (tah-uah'ro). 
Tanganyika     (tahn-gahn-ye'- 

kah). 
Tanjier  (tahn-j5r'). 
Tapajos  (tah-pah'zhos). 
Tarifa  (tah-re'fah). 
Ta-ian'to. 
Tar'ta-ry. 
Tas-ina'ni-a. 
Taunton  (tahn'ton). 
Tau'rus. 
Tchad  (chad). 
Teheran  (te-he-rahn'). 
Tehuantepec        (ta-whan'ta- 

pek). 
Tchukchees  (tchook'chSz). 
Ten-er-iffe'. 

Tengre  Nor  (teu'gre  nor). 
Ten-nes-see'. 
Terre  Haute  (ter'e  hot). 
Tex'as, 

Thames  (temz). 
ThianShan  (te-ahn'  shahn). 
Thibet  (tih'et). 
Thome  (to'ma), 
Tient-sing  (te-ent-sCng'), 
Tierra  del  Fuego  (tcer'ra  del 

I'wa'go), 
Tif 'lis  (or  tif-Igs'). 
Tip-pe-ca-noe'. 
Tivoli  (tiv'o-le). 
Ti'gris. 

Tim-buc-too'(or  tim-buc'too). 
Timor  (ti-mOr'). 
Titicaca  (te-te-kah'kah). 
To-bolsk'. 

Tocantins  (to-kahn-t5nz). 
To-le'do. 
Tom-big' bee. 


To-ron'to. 

Tor-tu'gas. 

Toulon  (too-loN'). 

Toulouse  (too-loozO. 

Tours  (toor). 

Tran-syl-va'ni-a. 

Traf-al-gar'  (or  tra-fal'gar), 

Travancore  (trav-ahn-kOr'). 

Trieste  (trC-esf). 

Trin-i-dad'. 

Trip'o-li. 

Troyes  (trwah). 

Truxillo  (tru-hel'yo). 

Tucson  (took'son). 

Tundras  (toon'drahz). 

Tu'nis. 

Tu'rin  (or  tu-rin'). 

Turkestan  (toor-kes-tahn'). 

Turk'ey. 

Tus-ca-loo'sa. 

Tus'ca-ny, 

Tuxtla  (tooxt'lah). 

Tus-cum'bia. 

Tuz-cu'co. 

u. 

Ucayle  (oo-kI-ah'15). 

Uist  (wist). 

Ulm  (Ger.  pron.  oolm). 

ITm-ba'gog. 

Ump'qua. 

U-ni'ted  States. 

Upernavik  (oo-per'na-vik). 

Upsala  (up-sah'la). 

U'ral  or  Ou'ral. 

Uruguay  (u'ra-gway  or  -gwi). 

U'tah. 

Utrecht  (yoo'treckt). 


Valdai  (valil'dl). 

Valladolid  (val-ah-do-lid'). 

Valparaiso  (val-pa-rl'-so). 

Vancouver  (van-koo'ver). 

Varinas  (vah-re'nahs), 

Vaud  (vO). 

Vendome  (voNdOm'). 

Venezuela  (ven-e-zwe'la). 

Ven'ice. 

Vera  Cruz  (ver'ali  krooz). 

Vermejo  (ver-inS'ho). 

Ver-mont'. 

Versailles  (ver-sSlz'). 

Ve-su'vi-us. 

Viatka  (ve-ahl'kah). 

Vich  (vik). 

\'icks'burg. 

Vic-to'ri-a. 

Vienna  (ve-en'nah). 

N'iudhya  (vind'yah). 

\'ir-gin'i-a, 

Vis'tii-la. 

Vol'ga. 

Vosges  (vOzh). 

w. 

Wabash  (wah'bash;. 

Wachusett  (waw-chn'set). 

Wahsatch  (wah-sach'). 

Wallachia  (wal-la'ki-ah). 

War'saw. 

Wash'ing-ton. 

Washita  (wash'e-tavv). 

Wa-ter-loo'. 

We'ser. 

West  Indies  (in'diz). 

Wheel'ing, 

West'min-ster. 

Wicleczka  (we-litch'kah). 

Win'ni-peg, 

Winnipiscogee         (win-e-pe 

sok'e). 
Wis-con'sin. 
Worcester  (woos'ter). 
Wur'tem-bnrg. 
Wyandot  (wl-an-dOf). 
Wy-o'ming. 


Xarayes  (hah-rl'es). 
Xeres  (hay-res'). 
Xingu  (shin-goo'). 


Yakatsk  (yah-kootsk'). 
Yang-tse-Kiang      (yahng'tso 

ke-ang'). 
Yapura  (yah-pu'rah). 
Yazoo  (yah-zoo'). 
Yed'o. 

Yenisei  (yen-I-sa'i). 
Yokohama  (yo-ko-hah'mah), 
Yo-sera'i-te. 
Yu-ca-tan'. 

Z. 

Zacatecas  (zak-a-tS'kas). 
Zambezi  (zam-bS'ze). 
Zanes'ville. 
Zan-gue-bar'. 
Zan-zi-bar'. 
Zealand  (ze'land). 
Zurich  (zu'rik). 
Zuvder  Zee  (zi'der  zee). 


77^ 


GEOGRAPHICAL    STATISTICS. 
)^h  r2r)   J4f>7  ^ — - 

Many  of  the  statistics  usually  given  at  tEe  close  of  works  of  tliis  order  have  been  carefully  inteiwoven  in  the  text  itself.  The  subjoined  Tables  arc  compiled  from  the  best  anthoritiee 
and  the  most  recent  data.  For  many  of  these  the  Author  is  indebted  especially  to  the  Census  of  the  United  States,  1870,  to  the  Census  of  Great  Britain  aud  of  the  Dominion,  1871  (the 
latter,  with  their  valuable  information,  kindly  furnished  by  Mr.  Alplieus  Todd,  Parliamentary  Librarian),  and  to  Behms'  Ueographisches  Jahrbuch. 

%^"  The  Class  should  be  exercised  on  these  Tables  by  such  questions  as  these  :  What  is  the  area  of  the  earth  ?  Uovv  much  laud  ?  How  much  water  ?  Population  ?  What  Nation 
owns  most  land  ?    Which  rules  most  people  ?    What  is  the  population  of  the  United  States  ?    Railroads,  length  of  Rivers,  heights  of  Mountains,  &c.,  &c. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Polar  Diameter 

Equatorial  Diameter 

Equatorial  Circumference . 
Superficial  Area 


7,89yj  miles. 
7.925+      " 
24,899i      " 
.196,8(il,750    square  miles 


HEIGHTS  OF  CHIEF  MOUNTAINS, 
(Pupil  will  find  these  statistics  i:i  the  table  at  bottom  ot 
pp.  20  and  21.) 

LENGTH  OF  CHIEF  RIVERS. 

(Pupil  will  find  these  at  bottom  of  pp.  20  iind  21.  He  will 
also  refer  for  additional  inlbnnatiuu  to  the  appropriate  place 
in  the  text.) 

TABLE  OF  ENGLISH  MILES  TO  A  DEGREE  OF  LON- 
GITUDE FOR  EVERT  FIFTH  DEGREE  OF  LATI- 
TUDE. 

(See  p.  12.) 

AREAS  OF  GRAND  DIVISIONS,  OCEANS,  AND  UNEX- 
PLORED REGIONS. 


Europe,  with  islands  3,846,038 
Asia,  "  "  17,.361,971 
Africa,  "  "  11.5.511.293 
North  America,  '•  9,021.15:1 
South  America,  "  6,9.57,271 
Australasia  and  Pol- 
ynesia    3,425,302 

Total  land  surface. 52,168,028 


Square  Miles. 
Unexplored     Polar 


Regions. 

Arctic  Ocean 

Atliintic  Ocean 
Pacilic  Ocean. . . 
Indian  Ocean . . . 


1,000,0(10 
,513,722 
,000,000 
,00.1.000 
.OUO.OOU 


Total  earth's  sur- 
face  196,681,750 


TABLE  OF  THE  EXTENT,  ELEVATION,  AND  DEPTH 
OF  THE  GREAT  AMERICAN  LAKES. 


Lake  Superior. 
Green  Bay  — 
Lake  Michigan 

"     Huron... 

"     St.  Clair. 

"     Erie 

"     Ontario. . 


Leiit^th. 
Miles. 

ISi-eaillli. 
Miles. 

Deplh  ill 
Feet. 

Elevafri 
.iliove  sea 
ill  Feet. 

400 

80 

850 

630 

100 

20 

500 

600 

320 

70 

1000 

600 

240 

:   80 

10.50 

600 

20 

.     18 

20 

570 

240 

•    38 

150 

56> 

180 

35 

650 

294 

Ar  ft  ill 
Sq.  Miles. 


32,000 
2,0UJ 
22,4(10 
20.400 
360 
9,600 
r.,300 


The  lakes  contain  11,.300  cubic  miles  of  water,  or  more  than 
one-half  of  all  the  fresh  water  on  the  globe. 

AREAS  OF  OTHER  PRINCIPAL  LAKES. 

Square  Mile.s. 

Lake  Nicaragua 4,000 

Luke  Wener. 2,12i) 

Great  Salt  Lake 1.900 

Great  Bear  Lake 10,0(10 

Lake  Geneva 82 


POPULATION  AND  AREA  OF  THE  EIGHT  LARGEST 
ISLANDS. 


■    Squ 

ue  Miles. 

Caspian  Sea. 

.147,000 

Sea  of  Aral 

.  31.100 

Lake  Baikal 

.    15,000 

Great  Slave  Lake. . . 

.   12.000 

Lake  Winnipeg.   . .. 

.     7,000 

Lake  Titicaca 

.     4,000 

Population.     Square  Miles. 


Australia 

2.000.000 

2.945,000 

Borneo 

1.200,001) 

285.000 

New  Guinea    

1.000.000 

275,000 

Madagascar 

5.000.000 

2:12.000 

Sumatra    

2,600.000 

172,000 

New  Zealand 

201,712 

106,259 

30.000,000 
26,000,000 

95,000 

87,000 

The  United  States  owns  no  islands  except  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  and  those  that  are  near  our  own  shores,  called 
lUtmal  islands.  Neither  does  China,  nor  Turkey,  nor  Russia, 
nor  Brazil,  own  any  except  their  littoral  islands.  The 
United  States  has  possessions  only  on  the  American  Con- 
tinent. Great  Britain,  on  the  contrary,  has  possessions  in 
the  four  quarters  of  the  globe— her  iftncUlesl  possessions  being 
in  Europe;  these  are  now  as  follows  : 


Ilihaliitaiits. 

Square  Mil'-' 

In  Europe 

In  Africa  

31 .629.000 

2.900.00(1 

150.000.000 

2.0OII.0OO 

6,1:30,000 

121,000 
500  000 

981,000 

In  Australia  and  Polynesia..  . 

3.078.000 
3.597.:155 

Total   

192,659.000 

8,277,355 

THE  SIX  NATIONS  THAT  OWN  MORE  THAN  HALF 
THE  LAND  AND  GOVERN  MORE  THAN  HALF  THE 
PEOPLE  IN  THE  WORLD,  are- 


liiluiliitants. 

Square  Miles. 

China 

Great  Britain  

Russia  

480.000,000 
193.000.000 
77.(i00.fl00 
:19  00.1.0  10 
13.000,000 
41.000,000 

4,695,000 
8,320,000 
7,860.000 

United  States 

Brazil 

Turkey 

3,612,000 
3,2:30,000 
1,820,000 

Total 

843  00;),000 

29,537,000 

AREAS  AND  POPULATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
(By  Census  op  1870.) 


Maine 

35,000 

N.  Hampshire 

9.280 

Vermoiii 

10.212 

Massacliusetts 

7.800 

Rhode  Wand. 

1.30(> 

C'onneciicut.. . 

4.750 

Nkw  Enul'nd 



States,  agg. 

68.;348 

New  York.. 

New  Jersey  . . 

Pennsylvania. 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District  of  Co- 
lumbia   

Mm.  States, 
aggregate. . . . 

Virginia 

N'rth  Carolina 
So.  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Kloriaa    

Alabainii 

Mississippi.. 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas.: . . 
Tunnesseo. . . 
Indian    Teiri- 

Ifiry  (est)  . 
Ntw  Mexico. 
.Southern 

States,  agg 

West  Virginia 

Ohio 

Kentucky 

Indiana 

HIinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Missouri 

Iowa 

Minnesota 

Kansas    

Nebraska 

Colorado 

Montana  

Dakota 

Wyoming 

Western 

States,  agg. 


California*  . . . 

Oregon 

Nevada 

A  rizona 

Utah 

Idaho 

Wax/iington... 
Alaska  (est). . , 
Pacific 
States,  agg 

Total     Aggre 
gates  


StlU'ire 

Mile>. 


Asere^nte 
Po)iulation. 


626.915 
318,;300 
3:30..wl 
1,457,.3.51 
217,:3.5:3 
537,454 

3.487.9M 


47.000 
8.:320 

46.000 
2,120 

11,124 

60 
114,624 


38..3.->2 
50,701 
31,000 
.58.000 
.59,268 
50.722 
47,156 
41.346 
274.356 
52,19S 
^5,600 

68,991 
121,201 

941,894 


23.000 
39,9tM 
.37.(180 
13:3.809 
55.40!t 
56,4-.l 
53.9-24 
65.310 
.55.045 
8:3.5:31 
81,318 
75,995 
104,500 
143,776 
150.932 
97,88:3 

1,158.567 


188, 
95. 
112, 
113 

84, 
86 
69 

577, 


,328.4 1 C 


3,611,849 


■l,.382.759 
!K)6.09r, 

3,.521,951 
125.01.'-. 
780,894 

131,700 

9,818.415 


1,225.16:3 

I,071.:361 
705,606 

1.184,109 
187,748 
9i»6,!t92 
827,922 
726.915 
818.579 
481,471 

1,258,520 

12.000 
91,874 

9..591.260 


6^,809 
317,697 
329.613 
1,443,1.56 
212,219 
527,519 


1.606 

,580 

924 

13,947 

4.!»80 

9.668 


CJihiPM, 


5(10 
23 
14 
248 
1)4 
237 


3,455,013:      31,705 


4,:5.}0.210 
875.407 

3.4.56.609 
102.221 
605,497 

88,278 

9,458,222 


712  089 
678.470 
289,667 
6:38,926 
96.037 
521. .381 
382.896 
362.065 
564.700 
362.115 
936,119 


!)0.:393 


1.6:34.881 


412.014 

2.665.260 

l.:3-21.011 

1.(180.6:37 

2..5;39.891 

1.184.0.59 

1.054.670 

1.721.295 

1.194.020 

439.706 

.3&I.399 

122,993 

39,864 

20,595 

14.181 

9,118 

14.813.713 


560,247 
90,923 

42.491 
9.658' 

86,78(; 

14,9!(9 

23,9.55 
6,000 

8:35.0.59 


424.033 
2,601,946 

1,098.692 

1,6.55.8:37 

2..511.096 

1.167.28:; 

1.051. .351 

1.61 13. 141 

1  1K'<.20'; 

4:38  2.57 

ai6  :i77 

122.117 

;39.221 

18,:30(1 

12.8H' 

8.726 

14.289.481 


38,576,371 

t 


499.424 
86.929 
.■38.9.59 

9, .581 
86.014 
10.618 
22.195 

6,000 

7.59,7.50 


.33,595,374 


52,081 
.30,658 
65.J94 
22,794 
175,391 

43,404 

389,622 


.512,841 
;391,6.50 
41.5.814 
.51.5.142 
91.689 
47.5.510 
444.201 
:364,210 
25:3.475 
122.169 
322,331 


172 


3.9.39.204 


17.98!! 

63,213 

222.210 

24,560 

28,762 

11,849 

2.113 

118,071 

5,762 

7.59 

17.108 

789 

4.56 

1*3 

94 

18:3 

514.092 


1,272 
.346 
3.57 

26 
118 

60 
207 


5.386 


4,880,009 


1.176 


4(« 
31 
48 


18 


571 


2:i3 

1.211 

125 

41 
2 

98 
825 
(VIO 
404 
187 

70 


1.309 
5,175 


1 

101 

109 

240 

a3 

4.928 

1,206 

78 

51 

690 

914 

87 

187 

2.106 

1,2011 

209 


12.140 


56.551 
3.(M8 
3.175 
51 
624 
4,.321 
1,553 


69,923 


88,985 


*  California  has  43,310  Chinese. 

+  Exclusive  of  Navy,  Mariners  at  Sea,  and  Wild  Indians, 
estimated  at  367,227. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  STATES  AND 
POPULATION, 


1775. . 

1790. . 
1800. 
1810,. 
1820.. 


repulatlou. 
.  2.803  000  Colonies,  13 


3,929,827  Slates. 
5,:i(15,937 
7.2.39,814 
9,6:38,191 


13 
15 
16 
20 


1830. 
1840. 
18.5(1. 
1860. 
1870. 


I'epulatlon. 
.12,866,020  States. 
.  17,069,4.53  "  . 
.2:3.191,876  "  . 
31,719,765  "  . 
.  :38,576,;371       "     . 


23 
25 
30 
33 
37 


OTHER  PARTS  OF  AMERICA. 


Greenland  (osiiraated) 

Newpoundi.and 

Laf/radoi-  (estimated)  

Prince  Edward's  Island. . . 

The  Dominion 

Ontaiw 

Oiif/jic 

Aora  Scotia 

A't  w  III  It m  wick 

Maiiitolia 

Biitish  Colum/jia  (est) 

Northwest  Teiritoiies  (est) 

Mexico 

Cent.  America  (p.  87),  est 

West  Indies  (est) .. 

Viilxi,  ■■ 

Infiind  San  Domingo  (est). 
South  .America  (est).   ... 


lin 


The  Guuanas 

Venezima 

I'niled  Slates  of  Colombia  . 

Ecuador   

I'eru 

Jioliria 

Chili 

Argentine  Confederation.. 

I'araijiiay 

Uriig'iaj/ 

Patagonia. 


1871. 


1870 
1868. 
1871. 


1872. 
1865. 


1867. 


ropulatiou.         Sq.  Mile  . 


10,000 

146.536 

5,0(10 

94.021 

3.576..577 

1.620.812 

1.191.505 

:387.W)0 

285.777 

11.9,53 

50.000 

28.700 

9.116  082 

2.690,6:35 

4.000.000 

1,400.000 

710. (K)0 

:3(I.(H10.000 

10,000.(M10 

216,000 

2.200,000 

2,900,000 

l.:300,(IOO 

2,.5(I0.(K10 

1,987,000 

2.0R5,000 

1.801,000 

l,:i:37,(X)0 

250,(100 

30,000 


7,59,789 

40,200 

74,N.O 

2,100 

3,-347.045 

210."-,'0 

121.2(10 

18,660 

27,105 

13.000 

22(1,000 

2,7:37.000 

773,119 

188.;3(i:i 

93.H-.2(I 

45.,^W) 

2.'<.(::iO 

6,9,57.271 

3,2,30.9  (1 

197, SI5 

36H.2J5 

3.57.  IIIH 

219.978 

509.(191 

5:16.752 

132.619 

826.801 

12ti,:i48 

66,613 

376,:i02 


EUROPE, 


Dale. 

Population. 

Sq.  Miles. 

BlilTISII  ISLKS 

1871 . . 

31.465.480 

120.760 

Enqldnd 

"   .. 

20,982.326 

50.!»22 

Wales         

"   . . 

1,721, 7:10 

7,;398 

Scotland 

"   ., 

3,:3,58.615 

30,686 

Ireland 

"   . . 

5,402,759 

31,7.54 

France  (est) 

"   .. 

35.,346,644 

]89.:3,54 

New  Gerhan  Empire  — 

1884.. 

40,,577,744 

22.5.000 

J'riisda 

"  .. 

26,521,412 

156.928 

Bavaria 

'*  ., 

4,(-2,5,0(K) 

29,602 

Saxony 

"   . . 

2,.343,994 

5,708 

JIanorer 

*' 

1.923.492 

14.8,51 

Wiirtembmg 

"  .. 

1,748,.328 

7„514 

AlsTRIA 

** 

35,292,547 

210.:3.50 

Ilan/ioi  y 

1866!! 

10,684, :i">4 
9,(100,000 

82.8:36 

Turkey  in  Europe 

llO.Crfffl 

Greece 

1867  . 

1,096,810 

18,:347 

Ionian  Republic 

1865. . 

251.712 

1,006 

Sun  Marino  "     

18,50.. 

5,700 

21 

Switzerland  "     

I860.. 

2,510.494 

15.510 

Andorra        "    (est) 

1871 . . 

12,(100 

1,50 

Ilalv  (estimated) 

'* 

25,091.(100 

114:385 

Spain 

1864.. 

16.302.625 

195.,5i^2 

Portugal   *.. 

1863.. 

3.987,861 

:36.493 

Belgium 

I»i5.. 

4,984,4,51 

ll.:i74 

Holland 

1866. . 

3.552,665 

13.664 

Denmark 

1860 

1.6(8.(195 

14.7,33 

Sweden 

1864.. 

4.070.011 

170.627 

Norway 

1865.. 

1.701.478 

123,290 

Russia  in  Europe 

1864.. 

68.224.8:32 

2,110.769 

Poland 

\mi'.'. 

4,971.:i03 
1.844.008 

48,992 

Finland 

14.5,316 

The  Caucasus 

186:3.. 

4,157,917 

166,780 

ASIA, 


Hate. 
1865.. 

ropulallon. 
195.390.142 

Sq.  Miles. 

British  India . 

1.. 576.6 11 

Ceylon 

1865.. 

2.049.728 

24.703 

F.MiTHER  India.. 

18(i7.. 

20.769.915 

7,52.072 

Burmah{cf{) 

** 

4.600.000 

liKI.Sll 

Stam 

*^ 

6.298.998 

309,014 

Atiam 

" 

9.000.000 

198,037 

French  Cochin  China 

" 

9:9.116 

l,(l«l 

East  India  Islands  (est)... 

1871 . . 

27.678  804 

KOil.OOO 

Japan  (est) 

"  . . 

:3.5,OOO.l)00 

14»,394 

GEOGRAPHICAL     STATISTICS. 


157 


ASIA.— Continued. 


Chinese  Empire  (esti... 
Riis;<ia  in  Asia  {Sibe7ia). 

Afffhanistan  (est ) 

Befoochistan  (est) 

Arabia  (est) 

Persi  I  (est) 

Turkey  (est) 


1871 . . 

imi.. 

1871.. 


Population. 


480.000,(X)0 
4.625.699 

4,ooo;ooo 

2,000.000 
4,000.000 
.o.uOO.ObO 
IT.000,000 


Sq.  Mile: 


4,69.5,186 
5,582,767 
25S,521 
165.828 
1.026.000 
562..327 
6«7.;44 


AFRICA. 


Date. 


firypt 1871 . 

TriiKiti I    '•  . 

Tunis '    "  . 

Algeria 1867. 

Morocco  (i-st) 1871 . 

Abyssinia 18ti8. 

Liberia 1867 . 

Cape  Colony l!<<i5. 

Natal I    '•  . 

Diamond  Fields  and  the  I  i,„,, 

two  Kepublics  (eft) )'  /''"• 

Madagascar 1865. 


Population. 


7,465,000 

7.50.000 

950.(XX) 

2.92.3.246 

2.750,000 

3,000.000 

717..500 

49ii,:«l 

156,165 

500,000 

5,000,  00 


Sq.  Miles. 

659.060 
2<)8.42(i 

7M.620 
2.58.309 
259,584 
158.:387 
9  567 
192,759 

19,347 

300,000 
2;fi,308 


AU3TEALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND. 


-AcsTBALiAN  Colonies 

Sew  South  Wales 

Victofia    

Smit/i  A  uglralia  

Qi/eeiuland 

West  A  mlralia 

Tasmania 

New  Zealand 


Date. 
1866.. 


Population. 


1.610.859 
411,3S8 
626,639 
167.841 
87.775 
20.260 
95.201 
201,712 


Sq.  Miles. 


3,077.701 
.308.560 

88,451 
.380,002 
668,259 
975.824 

26.215 
106.2.59 


PEINCIPAl   TOWNS   AND   CITIES  OF   THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA, 


(Census  op  1870.) 


Albany N.  Y.. . . 

Alexandria Va 

Alleghany Pa 

Atlanta Ga 

A  uburn N.  Y  . . . 

Au!<usta Ga 

Austin Tex 

Baltimore Md  ..  . . 

Bangor Me 

Boston Mass.. . 

Bridgeport Conn... 

Brooklyn N.  Y  . . . 

Buffalo N.Y... 

Burlington Iowa... 

Burlington Vt 

Cambridge Mass.. . 

Camdtn N.  J. .. . 

Charleston S.  C... 

Charli^stown Mass.. . 

Charlotte N.  C 

Chattanooga Tenn. .. 

Chicn^'O El 


69 

1.3 

5;j 

21 

17 

1.5, 

4 

267 

18 

250. 

18 

396, 

IIT 

14 

14 

.39. 

20, 

4S. 

2-< 

4 

6 

298 

Cincinnati 0 2I(i 


Cleveland O. . 

Columbia S.  C. . 

Columbus Ga. ..  . 

Columbus O 

Concord N.  II.. 

Covington Ky 

Davenport Iowa. . 

Day  Ion O 

Des  .Moines Iowa. 

Detroit Mich.. 

Dubuque Iowa.. 

Elizabeth N.  J... 

Elmira N.Y    . 

Erie Pa.... 

Evansville Ind  . .. 

Fall  River Mass. . 

Fort  W'ayn? Ind.  .. 

Galveston Tex. .. 

Grand  [{ftpids Mich.. 

Hannibal Mo  .  .. 

llaiTisburg Pa  . . . 

Hartford Conn.. 

Hobokeii    N.J... 

llou-ton Tex... 

lliintsvillc Ala  .. . 

Indianapolis Ind. .  . 

.lai  kson Miss.  . 

.Jack-'imvillc Fla 

.Jersey  City N.  J. . . 

Kan-a"  City Mo 

Knoxville Tenn.. 

LiMcaster Pa 

Lawrence Mass.. 

Leavenworth Kan.. . 

Lexington Ky . 

Little  Rock. ..     Ark.  . 

l.ouisville Ky  ... 

Lowell Mass. . 

Lynn Mass.. 

Lynchborg Va. .  . . 

Macon (3a. .  . . 


92 
9 

7 
31, 
12 
24 
211, 
30, 
12 
79 
18. 
20. 
15 
19, 
21, 
26, 
17, 
13, 
16, 
10. 
2:i 
37. 
20. 

9, 

4. 
48. 

4, 

6. 
82, 
.32, 

8. 
20, 
2-\ 
17 
11 
12, 
100. 
40, 
28, 

t), 
10, 


Manchester N.  E 

Memphis Tenn 

Milwaukee Wis 

Minneapolis Minn 

Mobile Ala 

Montgomery AJa 

Nashville Tenn 

Natchez Miss 

New  .\lbany Ind 

New  Bedford Mass . .  . . 

Newark N.  J 

Newburyport Mass. . . . 

New  Brunswick N.J 

New  Haven Conn 

New  Orleans La 

Newport Ky 

New  York N.Y 

Norfolk Va 

Norwich Conn 

Omaha Neb 

Oswego N.  Y 

Paterson N.J 

Peoria Ill 

Petersburg Va 

Philadelphia Pa   

Pittsburg Pa 

Portland Me 

I'ortland Or 

Portsmouth Va 

I'oughkcepsic N.Y 

Providence R.  I 

(Juincy Ill 

Raleigh N.  C 

Read!  ng Pa 

Richmond Va 

Rochester N.  Y... 

Sacramento Cal 

Salt  Lake  City Utah.... 

St.  Joseph Mo 

St.  Louis Mo 

SI.  Paul  Minn.... 

Salem Mass.   .. 

San  Antonio Tex 

San  Francisco Cal 

Savannah Ga 

Scranton Pa 

Selma Ala 

Springfield Ill 

Springfield Mass 

Stockton Cal 

Syracuse N.  Y 

Taunton Mass 

Terre  Haute Ind 

Toledo O 

Trenton N.  J 

Troy ..N.Y 

Utica N.Y 


Vi(  ksburg Miss  . 

Washington D.  C... 

Wheeling W.  V. . 

Williamsport Pa..  .. 

Wilmington Del.  .. 

Wilmington N.  C  . 

Worcester Mass.. 


23. 
40. 
71. 
13. 
32. 
10. 
25, 
9. 
15. 
21. 

105. 
21 
15. 
50 

191 
15, 

942 
19 
16, 
16 
20, 
33, 
22, 
18, 

674, 
86, 
31 
8, 
1(1 
20 
Ii8 
24. 

m. 

51, 
62, 
16 
12. 
19 

310, 
2(1, 
24, 
12 

149, 
28, 
35 
6, 
17 
26. 
10 
43, 
IM 
16. 
31. 
22, 
46, 
2S, 
12, 

109. 
19. 
16. 
30. 
13. 
41, 


,5.36 
,226 
,440 
,066 
,034 
,588 
,865 
,057 
,396 
,320 
,059 
,595 
058 
840 
418 
,087 
.292 
,229 
,653 
,083 
,910 
,579 
,849 
,950 
,022 
.076 
.413 
,293 
,492 
,080 
.904 
,052 
,790 
,930 
,038 
,mi 
,283 
,854 
.565 
,864 
,030 
,117 
,256 
,473 
,2;35 
,092 
,484 
,364 
,703 
,966 
,051 
.629 
,103 
,.584 
,874 
,l(i5 
,804 
,443 
,199 
,280 
,030 
,841 
,446 
,105 


POPULATION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PEINCIPAL  CITIES 
OF  THE  WORLD, 

NORTH    AMERICA. 
[For  chief  Cities  and  Towns  of  the  United  States,  see 
above.]                                                          . 
.Montreal Dom.  of  Canada 107,000 


(Quebec  . 

'loionto  " 

Ottawa " 

London " 

Halifax " 

.Mexico Mexico . 

Havana Cuba 


60,000 
56.000 
22.000 
1.5,80(1 
57,000 
220,000 
150,000 


SOUTH   AMERICA. 

Bogota U.  S.  of  Colombia.  4.5,000 

( 'aniccas Venezuela    40,000 

(iiiito Ecuador 80,000 

Lima Peru 120,000 

La  Paz Bolivia 75,000 

S,aniiago Chili 115,000 

Valparaiso '•     80,000 

Rio  de  Janeiro Brazil 420,000 

Bahia "    150.000 

I'ernambuco "    120,000 

Buenos  Ayres Argentine  Confed 200,000 

Montevideo Uruguay 100,000 

EUROPE. 

London England 

Livcr])ool "       

Manchester "       

Birmingham "       

Leeds.. "       

Sheffield "        

Bristol "        

Mcrthyr  Tydvil Wales 

Glasgow Scotland 

Edinburg "        ... 

Dublin Ireland 

Belfast "       

Cork "      

Paris France 

Lyons '"      

Marseilles "     

Bordeaux "     

Lille "     

Nantes "     

Toulouse "     

Roue«i "     

Havre "     


[,880,000 
493,000 
3,55,000 
343,000 
260,000 
240.000 
182.000 

97,000 
477.000 
196,500 
216,000 
174,000 

78,000 
.830,000 
.325,000 
300,000 
195.000 
1.55,000 
115,000 
126,000 
100,000 

82,000 


Berlin German  Empire 1,000,000 

Hamburg. "            "       .305,000 

Munich "           "       .170,0(J0 

Breslau "            "       170.000 

Dresden    "           "       160,000 

Cologne "           "       126,000 

Konigsberg "            "       100,000 

Leipsic "            "       95,0(X) 

Bremen "            "       75,000 

Vienna Austria 607,000 

Prague "       1,57,000 

Trieste "      105,000 

Lemberg "      70,000 

Pesth Hungary 157,000 

Naples Italy 420,000 

Milan "     250,000 

Rome "     220,000 

Turin "     204,000 

Palermo "    180,000 

Genoa "    130,000 

Florence . , "     120.000 

Venice "     120,000 

Madrid    Spain 476,000 

Barcelona "      252,000 

Seville "      152,000 

Valencia "      145,000 

Malaga "      11.3,000 

Granada "      100,000 

Cadiz    "       75,000 

Lisbon Portugal 225,000 

Oporto '•       90.000 

Brussels Belgium 190,000 

Ghent •'        12.5.000 

Antwerp "       125,000 

Amsterdam Holland 265,(i00 

Rotterdam "        120.1)110 

Copenhagen Denmark 160,000 

Stockholm Sweden 140,000 

Christiana Norway 40,000 

St.  Petersburg Russia 5.50,000 

Moscow "      360,000 

Warsaw...     "      245,000 

Odessa •'       120.000 

Riga "      100,000 

Astrachan "      45,000 

Archangel "      20,000 

Geneva Switzerland 40,000 

Berne '•           30,000 

Athens Greece   40,000 

Constantinople Turkey 1,075,000 

Adrianople "        150,000 

Salonica "       90,000 

Bucharest "       125,000 

ASIA. 

Smyrna Turkey 160,000 

Damascus "       150,000 

Aleppo "       100,000 

Bagdad "       65,000 

Muscat Arabia 60.000 

Aden "      50.000 

Mecca "'     ' 40.000 

Teheran Persia. 100,000 

Tabiiz "  ■  . : 150,000 

Bokhara Turkestan 125,000 

Calcutta India 1,000,000 

Bombiiy '•     820,000 

Madras "     .'. 450,000 

Benares '■     600,000 

Lucknow "     300,000 

Delhi •..     "     ....- 160,000 

Bankok Siam 400,000 

Singapore .-. ; •. ■ 90,000 

Pekin- China 1,650,000 

<;anl,on "       1,200,000 

Shiinghai "       300,000 

Nanking "       300,000 

Amoy, "       250,000 

Yedo Japan 1,560,000 

Miako " 370,000 

Osaka "      700.000 

Yokahama "     300,000 

OCEANIA. 

Manilla .-. .  Philipiiine  Islands  ....  160,000 

Batavja Java 100.000 

Melbourne Australia 130.000 

Sydney '■        100,000 

Honolulu Sandwich  Islands 14,000 

AFRICA. 

Cairo Egypt 260,000 

Alexandria "       275.000 

Tunis Tunis 1.50,000 

Morocco Morocco 100.000 

Fez "        75,000 

Algiers Algeria 60,000 


ESTIMATED  POPULATION  OF  THE  EARTH  IN  1871, 

America 90,000.000   I  Australia,    Poly- 
Europe 295,000,000   I     nesia  and  other 

Asia 800,000.000        islands 

Africa 190.000,000   | 

Total 1,380.000,000 


5,000,000 


MILES  OF  RAILROAD,  1871, 


America .56.01  lO  miles. 

(United  States.. 51.000       ") 

Europe 64,000       " 

(Great  Britain...  16,000      ") 
Asia 5,000       " 


Africa 1,500  miles. 

Australia 1,000 

Total,  World,  127,500  miles. 


f\  h: 


1 58 


MAP-DRAWING. 


MAP-DRAWING. 


L— PRELIMINARY   METHOD. 


How  to  teach  map-drawing  is  a  pei-plexing  question  with  many  teachers. 
But  systematic  efforts,  aided  by  a  few  simple  rules,  will  soon  make  it  a  favorite 
(jxercise  of  the  class-room. 

Map  Tracing. — Lay  a  transparent  sheet  (tracing  paper)  smoothly  over  the 
original.  Secure  it  so  that  it  may  not  slip,  and  then  trace  with  pen  or  pencil 
what  you  wish  to  copy. 

Map  Sketching. — The  object  of  this  is  to  practice  the  eye  and  hand,  as  well 
as  to  impress  upon  the  mind  the  geographical  features  of  the  countrj'.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  exercises  in  the  study  of  geography. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  pupil  can,  at  first,  draw  from  memorj'  a  map 
that  will  look  just  like  the  oiiginal  in  the  book,  but  let  each  one  draw  some- 
thing as  much  like  it  as  lie  can.  The  best  way  is  to  begin  with  the  original 
before  him.  Let  us  take  an  easy  one,  as  North  Carolina,  and  begin  by 
examining  its  outhnes. 

Well,  now  look  along  the  northera  boundary,  that  is  a  straight  line.  Fol- 
low down  the  western  boundary,  which  slants  to  tlie  west.  The  southern 
line  is  broken ;  follow  it  carefully  ;  and  now  measure  with  your  pencil  the 
width  of  the  State  along  the  coast.  Now  measure  the  width  in  the  westein 
part.  Now  measure  the  length,  and  see  how  much  longer  the  State  is  tlian 
it  is  wide.  Close  your  books.  I  shall  give  you  just  fve  minutes  to  draw  this 
map ;  so  you  must  work  rapidly.  James,  Jolin,  Matthew,  Henry,  Charles, 
Robert,  go  to  the  blackboards,  and  the  rest  of  you  fcike  your  slates.  Are  you 
ready?  Begin.  Draw  the  coast-line  first,— sketch  lightli/  and  rapidlg, -—thm 
draw  the  northern  boundary;  next  the  western  ;  and  then  the  southeni.  In 
five  minutes  the  signal  is  given.  The  work  ceases.  All  are  seated.  Books 
are  opened,  and  each  map  on  the  board  is  good-naturedly  criticized.  Now, 
scholars,  I  will  draw  the  northern  line  of  this  map  for  you.  I  think  it  looks 
better,  after  you  have  traced  it  lightly,  to  take  the  blunt  end  of  your  chalk- 
crayon  and  go  over  it  witli  short  Iieavy  strokes,  thus :  ^^™ 


^ ? 


The  next  day. — Well,  have  you  forgotten  how  North  Carolina  looks?  No 
sir.  Look  at  your  geographies  again.  Can  you  draw  llic  northern  part  of  it 
for  the  length  of  an  inch?  Yes,  sir.  Can  j^ou  then  draw  «//<>//«'/•  inch  ?  Yes, 
sir.  Very  well;  so  you  cati  draw  the  whole  of  it  inch  by  inch.  Meas- 
ure again  the  width  of  it  with  your  pencil  in  the  eastern  part;  now  in 
the  western  part,  and  remember  the  diflFerence.  Now  measure  the  length, 
and  see  how  many  times  the  width  it  measures.  Now  notice  the  moun- 
tains. 

Next  notice  the  beginning  of  the  Neuse  River,  the  directions  from  which 
and  in  which  it  flows,  and  where  it  empties. 

Again,  six  boys  at  the  blackboards  and  the  rest  with  slates,  have  five 
minutes  given  to  sketch  the  map.  The  boundaries  are  retraced  according 
to  yesterday's   instruction. — Now,  scholars,  you  may  draw  the  rivers.    Make 

a  wavy  or  vibratory  motion  with   your  crayons,  thus :  

Can    you  do   this?      A    few   MrauTEs   are    silently    spent   in  prac- 
ticing. 

Now,  scholars,  to-morrow  North  Carolina  will  be  a  special  lesson,  and  I 
wish  you  to  study  the  map,  the  rivers,  location  of  the  towns,  etc.,  and  impress 
upon  your  minds  the  features  of  the  State,  as  you  would  those  of  a  man  you 
wished  to  remember  for  life. 

[Let  pupils  here  refer  to  General  Hints  for  Map-Drawing,  p.  160.] 


MOUNT  A  INS. 


The  next  day  spend  about  ten  minutes  in  drawing  maps  of  Nortli 
Carolina.  Let  the  pupils  represent 
mountains  in  the  following  manner, 
and  after  tracing  lightly  the  coast-line, 
go  over  it  witli  the  blunt  end  of  the 
crayon,  making  a  broad,  heavy  stroke. 

Now,  scholars,  to-morrow  morning  I  want  you  all  to  bring  ia  a  map  of 
North  Carolina,  drawn  either  with  pen  or  pencil ;  but  I  prefer  tliat  drawnwilh 
a  pencil. 

Always  require  maps  to  ke  drawn  as  large  as  the  slate  or 
BLACKBOARD  WILL  ALLOW  ;  a  better  effect  is  produced  and  more  freedom  of 
the  hand  acquired  ;  the  pupils'  attention  for  the  present  being  called  particu- 
larly to  the  coinparddce,  lather  than  to  the  absolute  measurements.  Let 
pu[)ils  use  the  book  until  they  become  experts,  then  require  them  to  sketch 
from  memory.  They  may  indicate  by  a  small  cross  the  extreme  N.,  S.,  E., 
W.,  N.E.,  N.W.,  S.E.,  and  S.W.  limits,  measuring  with  their  pencils,  and 
comparing  distances,  and  then  connecting  the  various  points  with  sliglit 
dotted  lines,  following  as  nearly  as  possible  the  contour  of  the  map,  afterward 
retracing  with  heavy  lines.  Rapidity  rather  than  accuracy  should  be  re- 
quired at  first;  for  time  is  precious.     Accuracy  will  come  with  practice. 

Pupils  must  execute  at  home  every  map  drawn  in  the  class-room, 
but  only  after  repeated  drawings. 

The  knowledt;e  of  ceoOTapliy  thus  acquired,  will  have  been  attained  through  a  procous 
which  trains  the  eye  and  tnc  hand— ^ivinj;  judgment  and  skill— developinK  the  perceptive 
faculties,  and  creating  tastes  of  incalculable  value  to  the  individual. 

MaI'-I)RAWIN()    on    I'AI'KR   SIIOII.D    advance.  J^O)t   /;a^*?/,  WITH   OrP-HANI)  MAP-DRAWINO 

ON  TiiK  BLACKBOARD  AND  sLATK.  .\fler  a  map  has  been  drawn  and  redrawn,  and  discussed 
in  all  its  physical  features  before  the  class,  it  should  be  given  as  the  special  lesson  of  the 
next  day,  and  every  pupil  be  required  to  execute  a  map.  The  comparison  of  these  maps 
will  awaken  a  high  degree  of  interest  in  the  pupils,  (iradually,  as  the  work  becomes  fa- 
miliar, details  may  be  insisted  upon.  Kequire  the  paper  to  be  of  a  certain  size  and  form. 
Bristol-board  is  best ;  and  instruct  the  pupil  to  leave  one  and  one-half  inches  of  while  mar- 
gin, and  to  make  marginal  lines  resembling  those  in  their  buoks. 


M  ARG IN  A  L     LIN 

After  some  proficiency  has  been  attained 
instruction  may  bo  given  in  msiking  the 
wavy  lines  representing  water  lines  along 
the  coast,  heavy  at  first,  and  becoming 
lighter  and  wider  apart  until  they  fade  into 
indistinctness,  thus. 

For  coasting, 
the  crayon  may 
be  notched  and 
used  as  wo  liave 
indicated. 

Many  pupils  will  acquire  such  skill  in 
map-drawing  that  they  will  imitate,  and 
even  surpass,  in  artistic  effect,  the  printed 
map  ;  nor  are  such  pupils  e>  ceptional  ca.ses. 
Let  any  teacher  persistently  and  systemat- 
ically pursue  this  method,  and  the  results 
will  astonish  himself  and  charm  his  pupils. 


NOTCHED  CRAYON. 


DRAWING     COAST-LINES. 


J 


MAP-DRAWING. 


1 59 


II.— HIGHER  COURSE  OF  MAP-DRAWING. 


Having  for  some  months  diligently  put  in  practice  the  former  method  of 
map-diawing,  you  are  now  ready  to  apply  a  more  exact  system. 

You  will  fiud  no  royal  road  to  map-drawing  by  the  use  of  mathematical 
ficrures.  Each  and  every  continent,  island,  and  state  must  be  known  as  the 
painter  knows  the  face  he  portrays. 

Advantages  0/ using  ParalUls  and  Meridians  rather  than  Geometrical  Figures.— The  use 
of  any  line?,  except  those  actually  impressed  on  the  face  of  nature,  may  be  objected  to  as 
arbitrary;  hut  it  is  found  that  the  earth's  natural  marks  and  boundaries  are  not  sufficient 
helps  in  laying  off  a  map.  From  time  immemorial  all  geographers  have  agreed  to  represent 
the  earth  as  a  globe,  on  which  certain  parallels  and  meridians  are  drawn.  Those  lines  are  in 
universal  and  daily  use  by  the  statesman,  the  merchant,  the  seaman,  and  the  explorer.  They 
recur  at  regular,  convenient,  and  known  intervals,  aud  afford  all  the  aid  needed  in  map- 
drawing.  Their  points  of  intersection  are  as  fixed  and  familiar  as  the  junctions  of  our  great 
railways  ;  and.  ulthoiiijh  they  were  ori.;inally  artificial,  they  have  become  next  to  natural,  are 
conceived  of  as  actual  furrows  in  the  earth's  crust,  and  are  respected  as  if  they  were  the  most 
ancient  landmarks. 

I.  To  draw  a  Map  after  Mercator's  Projection  is  now  the  first  thing  to  be 
done.  (See  "  Mercator's  Projection"  in  Map-Making,  p.  1(50.)  In  a  Mercator's 
map  tlic  meridians  of  longitude  arc  all  parallel.  Of  course  this  enlarges  the 
countries,  toward  the  poles  in  their  longitude.  To  preserve  the  bearing  of 
places  on  this  map,  there  must  be  a  proportional  increase  of  the  degrees  of 
latitude  as,  you  go  from  the  equator  toward  either  pole. 

Suppose  it  is  desired  to  draw,  at  first,  an  easy  map,  as  that  of  the  Stale 
of  Kansas.  Having  first  learned  tJie  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  few  places 
in  Kamds,  as  Fort  Dmhje,  Toptka,  etc.,  the  scholar  is  sent  to  the  blackboard, 
and  is  directed  to  proceed  according  to  the  following 

Form  of  Recitation. 

Outline. — I  am  to  draw  the  map  of  Kansas.  This  State  lies  between 
the  37tii  and  40th  parallels  of  north  latitude  and  the  94th  and  102d  meridians 
of  west  longitude. 

As  Kansas  extends  through  eight  degrees  of  longitude,  draw  a  line  for  its 
northern  boundary,  aud  divide  it  into  eight  equal  parts.  The  table  below 
shows  that  one  degree  of  longitude  on  this  boundary  (40°)  is  46  miles  long, 
aiainst  60  miles  for  one  degree  of  latitude.  Therefore  laj'  off  the  western 
IxHindary  of  Kansas  (which  extends  thiough  three  degrees  of  latitude)  in 
three  parts  or  degrees,  each  one  being  made  '"As  or  V3  (nearlj')  as  long  as  one 
of  the  degrees  of  longitude.  Thus  I  construct  the  following  skeleton  for 
Kansas,  approximately  accurate. 


SKELETON      POR      KANSAS. 

There  are  mountain  chains  a  little  west  of  Kansas,  and  the  surface  of  the 
State  is  high  on  the  west,  and  slopes  toward  the  east.  The  rivers  of  Kansas, 
therefore,  flow  eastward.  Smoky  Hill  Fork  comes  in  on  the  39th  parallel, 
and  the  Arkansas  on  the  38th,  and  Red  Fork  on  the  37th  parallel.  Smoky 
ti'Al  soon  becomes  the  Kansas,  and  the  Arkansas,  on  reaching  long.  97"  20', 
flows  south.  The  Missouri  cuts  off  one  corner  of  Kansas.  The  cities  and 
towns  of  the  State  are  mostly  on  its  rivers.  The  railroad  generally  follows 
the  courses  of  the  rivers. 

Directions  for  applying  this  Method  in  Practice. 
(\.)  In  drawing  a  map  of  an  irregular  country,  first  lay  down  parali.kls  and  merid- 
ians supficiENT  TO  roNTAiN  IT.     Mcmorize  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  four  or  five  of  the 
salient  points  or  chief  corners  of  your  country,  and  locate  them  on  the  scheme  of  parallels 
and  meridians.    Then  draw  the  outline  of  the  map  by  connecting  these  points. 


(2.)  In  drawing  Mercator's  Map  of  the  World,  it  may  be  well  for  the  pnpil  to  refer  to  the 
last  two  paragraphs  of  Lesson  XIV.,  p.  22.  Having  learned  the  bearings  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America  and  South  .\merica,  the  pupil  can  sketch  the  opposite  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  by  observing  how  the  two  great  shores  of  this  ocean  might  fit  into  each  other. 

Qi.)  It  will  be  well,  at  first,  to  draw  States  of  easy  construction,  aud  afterward  the  pupil 
can  take  more  difficult  subjects,  as  Europe. 

(4.)  Towns  should  be  marked  with  a  round  stamp  and  capitals  with  a  star,  thus:    ©  ■^  . 

„  .,       ,         ,  ,  K    ■    1-     .    1  .,  llimiNlllillllll'iimffltfftttttfi    Railroad. 

Railroads  and  cauals  may  be  indicated  thus  : 


Canal. 


(5.)  In  drawing,  either  on  blackboard,  slate,  or  paper,  the  geographical  lines  should  be 
drawn  %Atfy— afterward  they  may  be  made  heavier,  or  may  be  removed,  as  required. 

n.  To  prepare,  with  approximate  accuracy,  a  skeleton  of  converging  me- 
ridians and  curved  parallels  appropriate  for  such  countries  as  the  United 
States,  North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  all  lying  wholly  one  side  of  the 
equator,  will  now  be  easy  of  execution. 

Take  Europe  for  an 
illustration.      Our    unit) 

OP    MEASURE    IS    ONE    DE- 
GREE     OP     LATITUDE,     Oil 
SIXTV       GEOQRAPUICAL  | 
MILES. 

(1.)  I!y  inspecting  llie| 
map.  we  find  that  Europe 
mostly  lies  between  the 
40th  and  the  70th  paralkls 
of  N.  latitude,  and  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich 
and  the  00th  meridian  of 
E.  longitude.  Ittherefon- 
extends  through  30°  of  lat- 
itude aud  60°  of  longitude. 

(2.)  Draw  a  perpendicu- 
lar line,  P  (very  light),  cut- 
ting the  space  to  be  occu- 
pied by  your  map  into  two 
equal  parts.  This  is  your 
Central  Meridian. 

(3.)  As  Europe  extends 
through  .30  degrees  of  lati- 
tude, lay  off  on  the  Cen- 
tral Meridian  three  equal 
spaces,  each  representing 
10  degrees  of  latitude. 

Select    those    parallels 

that  most  nearly  divide  the  latitude  embraced  by  Europe,  into  three  equal  parts:    these 
parallels  are,  in  Europe,  the  50th  and  the  60th. 

At  the  60th  parallel  (see  Table),  1°  of  longitude  is  in  the  ratio  of  ;30  to  60,  or  1/2.  of  a  degree 
of  latitude:  the  desired  60°  of  longitude  are,  therefore,  equal  to  '/s  of  60°  of  latitude,  or 
equal  to  the  .30°  of  latitude  already  marked  off  on  the  Central  Meridian.  Of  this  length,  lay 
off  at  the  60lh  parallel  a  dotted  line  1—2,  perpendicular  to  the  Central  Meridian  and  divided 
by  it  into  two  equal  parts. 

At  the  50th  parallel  (see  Table),  1°  of  longitude  is  .38,  instead  of  30  miles  ;  therefore,  lay  off 
at  the  50th  parallel  the  dotted  line  3^1  'V30.  o'"  about  V3  of  that  laid  off  at  the  60th  parallel. 
TABLE  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  MILES  IN  A  DEGREE  OP  LONGITUDE  AT  EVERY 
FIFTH  DEGREE  OP  LATITUDE  FROM   THE  EQUATOR  TO  THE  POLES. 


,S  K  E  L  K  T  O  N 


Lat. 

Miles. 

Lat. 

Miles. 

Lat. 

Miles. 

0° 

60 

35° 

49 

65" 

25 

5^ 

59 

40° 

46 

70° 

20 

10° 

59 

45° 

42 

75° 

15 

15° 

58 

50° 

38 

80° 

10 

20° 

56 

55° 

34 

85° 

5 

25° 

54 

60° 

30 

90° 

0 

30° 

52 

(4.)  This  done,  draw  straight  lines  through  3  and  1  and  4  and  2,  intersecting  each  other  in 
the  C.  M.  Take  the  point  of  their  intersection,  C,  as  a  centre  from  which  to  describe  the 
arcs,  or  parallels  of  latitude  through  the  points  already  marked  in  the  C.  M.  On  the  lower 
parallel  divide  the  distance  between  the  converging  lines  into  six  equal  parts  (10°),  and  con- 
nect these  several  points  with  C  by  straight  lines  ;  these  lines  will  represent  the  meridians. 

(5.)  To  make  meridians  outside  of  Europe,  you  have  only  to  mark,  on  the  70th  parallel, 
points  10°  of  longitude  apart;  and  from  C  draw  straight  lines  through  these  points  to 
the  margin  of  the  map.  Parallels  outside  of  Europe  may  be  made  as  the  others,  using  C  as 
a  centre  for  describing  them.  You  now  have  your  scheme  of  parallels  and  meridians  for  the 
map  of  Europe,  after  drawing  marginal  lines  to  enclose  the  appropriate  space. 

(6.)  You  can  now  locate  the  principal  capes  and  indentations  on  the  outline,  a.-aAfillin  the 
whole  skeleton  as  before. 

III.  To  prepare  a  sketch  of  parallels  and  meridians  for  South  America, 


i6o 


MAP-DRAWING. 


Africa,  or  Australia  and  the  East  Indies,  lying  on  both  sides^vpf  the  equator, 
the  parallels  are  best  represented  as  straight  lines  and  the  meridians  arc 
traced  in  Curved  lines  drawn  according  to  the  law  of  the  successive  decrease 
in  the  length  of  the  degrees  of  longitude. 

Draw  first  the  requisite  number  of  parallels  and  the  Central  Meridiak,  perpendicular 
to  them.  Mark  off  on  the  equator  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  C.  M.  spaces  equal  to  those 
separating  the  parallels.  In  like  manner,  mark  ou  each  parallel  corresponding  spaces  having 
the  same  proportion  to  those  on  the  equator,  as  a  degree  of  longitude  on  each  respective 
parallel  has  to  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  equator,  by  the  table.  Curved  lines  drawn 
through  those  successive  series  of  points  on  each  side  of  the  C.  M.  will  represent  the 
meridians.    The  larger  the  country,  the  more  inaccurate  are  methods  IT.  and  III. 

(IV.)  To  Draw  Curved  Lines  and  Parallels.  This  may  be  done  with  a  flexible  ruler, 
The  ruler  should  be  made  of  hickory  or  ash,  '/a  x  '/g  in. 

To  use  it,  set  off  a  few  of  the  points  or  places  through  which  the  meridian  or  parallel 
you  wish  to  draw  must  pass.  Then  pressing  the  ends  of  the  flexible  ruler  against  two  pins 
or  tacks  securely  fixed  in  the  drawing-board,  bend  the  ruler  with  one  hand,  and  draw  the 
curve  with  the  other,  as  by  the  following  figure. 


A    DESERT. 


USING     THE     FLEXIBLE     RULER. 

(V.)  The  Scale  op  Miles  may  be  made  by  dividing  a  degree  of  latitude  into  six  parts. 
One  part  would  equal  10  geographical  miles  ;  five  parts,  50  miles ;  and  ten,  100  miles,  etc. 

General  Hints  for  Map-Dr.\wing. 

(1.)  No  pupil  knows  a  map  until  he  can  draw  it  from  memory. 

(2.)  The  order  for  drawing  the  Continents  is,  (1.)  South  America, 
the  least  difficult; -(2.)  Africa;  (3.)  North  America;  (4.)  Asia;  (5.)  Europe. 

(8.)  It  is  desirable  to  give  the  class  a  special  drill  in  drawing  cities,  moun- 
tain ranges,  hills,  peaks,  coast-lines,  and  deserts. 

Peaks  may  be  indicated  thus :     ^. 

Deserts  are  represented  by  dotted  spaces  thus : 

(4.)  It  is  often  found  well,  to  quicken  the  attention  of  the 
class,  to  send  one  pupil  to  the  blackboard  with  instructions 

to  name  and  describe,  in  a  clear  lively  tone,  every  part  of  the  "* 

map  as  he  draws  it.    But  concert  recitation  should  be  hab- 
itual and  always  with  rapid  sketching. 

(5.)  Copying  on  slate  or  blackboard  may  be  done  at  first  willi  advan- 
tage, where  the  class  is  composed  of  beginners.  Always,  then,  begin  with 
small,  easij^'-drawn  States,  as  Colorado,  Kansas,  Alabama,  etc. 

(fi.)  The  Materials  necessary  for  drawing  on  paper,  and  coloring,  are  a  lead  pencil 
(No.  2),  Bristol-board,  a  piece  of  india  rubber,  pen,  cake  of  india-ink.  and  gamboge,  a  i)late 
in  which  to  rub  the  paints,  and  one  or  two  camel-hair  brushes,  and  a  flat  brush  for  coloring. 

(7.)  Maps  drawn  in  lead  pencil  should  be  finished  before  j'ou  commence  coloring. 

All  lines  should  first  be  drawn  lightly,  and  afterward  corrected.  In  drawing  rivers,  be- 
gin at  the  sources,  and  gradually  increase  the  breadth  of  your  lines  as  you  descend  the 
stream.    Draw  the  backbone  of  mountains  before  the  spurs. 

(8.)  Cdoring. — Begin  by  makins  the  boundaries  in  narrow  bright  lines,  using  the  camel- 
hair  brush.  Do  not  pass  the  brush  more  than  once  over  any  part  of  the  map;  the  brush 
should  be  quite  full  of  the  tint.  To  produce  a  shaded  line,  take  your  flat  brush  and  fill  one 
side  with  water  and  the  other  with  the  tint.     Blue  is  the  color  for  the  water. 

•  (9.)  India-ink  Maps  should  be  firet  finished  in  pencil  and  colored  com- 
pletely ;  afterward  the  mountains,  rivers,  cities,  and  shores  may  be  put  in 
with  india-ink. 

(10.)  A  Pine  Board  for  Drawing.—The  use  of  a  plain  soft  pine  board  on  which  to  lay  your 
paper  in  drawing  will  be  found  an  important  aid. 

[iVrte.— Hitherto  your  exercises  in  map-drawing  have  been  practiced  with  an  aim  only 
to  approximate  accuracy,  in  impressing  the  bolder  features  ani  general  outlines  of  conntries 
on  your  mind,  and  in  tutoring  the  eye  and  hand  to  sketch  them  for  the  aid  of  the  memory. 
You  may  now  begin  the  higher  and  more  satisfactory  study  of  map-making,  which  is  a 
distinct  art  in  itself.] 

Map-Making. 

The  fii-st  step  in  map-making  is  to  decide  as  to  the  projection.  For  maps 
that  contain  more  than  120°  of  longitude  Mercator's  is  the  best.  For  .smaller 
areas,  especially  when  they  are  made  up  chiefly  of  land,  the  Rectangular 
Tangential  projection  is  to  be  preferred. 

I.  A  Mercator's  map  is  the  development  of  the  earth's  surface  on  a  cyl- 
inder, supposed  to  revolve,  tangentially  at  the  equator,  upon  its  own  axis  once 


while  you  are  rolling  it  on  the  equator  once  round  tlie  earth.  By  tliis 
development  the  meridians  of  longitude  are  all  straight  lines,  and  parallel 
witli  each  other,  and  so  are  the  parallels  of  latitude,  but  tlic  distance  between 
the  latter,  as  marked  ou  the  cylinder,  increases  as  you  approacli  tlie  poles. 
The  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  the  course  and  distance  between  any 
two  places  on  the  map  are  straiglit  lines.  It  is  for  this  reason  tluit  all  charts 
used  for  navigation  by  every  nation  are  Mercator's. 

Sui)pose  we  wish  to  construct  a  Mercator  tsay  of  Kansas)  on  a  scale  of  one-third  of  an  inch 
to  60  miles  (1°)  at  the  equator.  You  will  then  assume  GO  meridional  parts  =  1°  =  '/a  inclL 
Now  draw  your  meridians  one-third  of  an  inch  apart  to  represent  degrees  of  longitude. 
Kansas  lies  between  the  paralles  of  37°  anjl  40°.  There  are  more  meridional  parts,  as  you  see 
by  the  table,  to  a  degree  of  latitude  between  3T°  and  40°  than  there  are  to  a  degree  near  the 
equator,  cons"qnently  you  must  increase  the  distances  between  the  parallels  of  Kansas  pro- 
portionally. Between  .37°  and  38°  lat.,  there  are  seventy-five  meridional  parts  =  Oln.  .41fi; 
between  :J8°  and  39°  lat.,  seventy  seven  meridional  parts  =  0>"  .427;  between  39°  and  40°  lat. 
there  Sire  seventy-eight  meridional  parts  =  O'".  .4.33.  Mark  these  distances  on  the  margin  of 
your  map  sheet;  draw  In  ink  your  parallels  through  them,  and  you  have  the  skeleton  of 
your  Mercator.    (See  map  of  Kansas,  p.  159.) 

Now  draw  on  the  map  from  which  you  are  copying  parellels  and  meridians  also  for  every 
degree.  Thus  you  have  both  the  original  and  the  copy  divided  oflinto  sections  of  1°  square, 
and  you  can  transfer  by  the  eye  and  in  pencil  from  one  square  to  the  other,  first  putting  in 
the  roads  and  rivers,  as  per  diagram.  This  done,  fill  up  with  details,  then  ink,  letter,  rub  out 
pencil  marks,  and  the  map  is  done.  Where  great  accuracy  is  required  the  squares  both  on 
the  original  and  the  copy  should  bo  smaller,  so  as  to  contain  areas  of  30.  20,  10,  5  miles  or  1 
mile  square.    A  little  practice  will  soon  accustom  the  eye  to  great  accuracy. 

The  advantage  of  this  plan  of  working  by  squares,  is  that  any  error  that  may  be  made  is 
not  carried  from  one  square  to  another,  but  is  confined  within  the  square  to  which  it  belongs. 
Please  look  at  the  Mercator's  map,  jip.  20,  21,  and  you  will  see  how  the  distance  behveen  the 
several  parallels  of  latitude  increases  as  you  recede  from  the  equator,  and  you  will  moreover 
see  that  on  maps  of  this  projection  alone  the  north  is  always  at  the  loj),  and  the  east  to  the 
right-hand,  as  you  have  been  taught.  This  rule  holds  good  for  no  other  projection  when  the 
map  includes  a  large  extent  of  the  earth's  surface.  For  instance,  look  at  the  hemispheres, 
pp.  10  and  11.  Ou  the  Western  Hemisphere  the  North  Pole  is  to  the  left  of  Iceland  and  to 
the  right  on  the  Eastern.  On  account  of  this  confusion  of  bearings  of  places,  especially  near 
the  edges  of  the  map,  the  Mercator  projection  is  generally  preferred  by  physical  geograjjliers 
as  well  as  by  navigators  for  their  guidance  at  sea,  and  their  researches  and  illnstratious. 

NUMBER  OP  MERIDIONAL  PARTS  IN  THE  1st  AND  EVERY  .'iTii  DEGREE  OP 
LATITUDE,  FROM  THE  EQUATOR  TO  THE  85th  DEGREE. 


Lat. 
1° 

Meridional  Parts. 

Lat. 

Meridional  Parts. 

Lat. 

Meridional  Parts. 

00 

30' 

69 

60" 

118 

5' 

GO 

35° 

73 

05' 

140 

10' 

61 

40' 

78 

70° 

172 

l.V 

02 

45° 

84 

75' 

234 

20' 

04 

50' 

92 

80° 

329 

25' 

CO 

55° 

102 

85° 

628 

II.  The  Rectangular  Tangential  Projection  is  developed  by  laying 
together  on  a  flat  surface  a  large  number  of  small  planes,  nearly  rectangular, 
supposed  to  liave  been  tangentially  placed  on  a  globe  and  to  have  received 
an  impressitm  of  the  country  to  be  mapped.  This  method  is  preferred  chiefly 
for  the  land,  as  Mercator's  is  for  tlie  sea. 

The  smaller  the  country,  the  more  accurate  the  mtip  ;  for  on  this  i)rojection 
greater  accuracy  may  be  developed  on  a  nitip  of  America  thtui  upon  a  map 
(if  Asia,  and  greater  still  upou  a  map  of  Europe,  which  is  smaller  than  either, 
while  on  maps  of  smaller  portions  of  the  earth's  surface,  the  room  for  accu- 
racy is  all  that  can  be  desired. 

This  projection  has  been  introduced  into  chartography  by  Col.  Sir  Henry 
James,  of  the  English  Ordnance  Survey,  who  is  in  charge  oF  the  most  cele- 
brated map  establishment  in  the  world. 

The  principles  of  it  are  very  simple,  though  the  mathematical  demonstra- 
tion of  them  here  would  be  ou'-  of  place.  But  after  a  proper  explanation  of 
them  and  a  little  thought,  you  will  be  able  to  form  a  very  good  idea  of  them. 
Imagine,  as  Sir  Henry  did,  a  terrestrial  globe  of  sixty-seven  feet,  with  all 
places  laid  down  upon  it  in  their  true  position.  Now  take  a  set  of  plane 
surfaces,  each  just  large  enough  to  cover  a  space  on  tliis  globe  4°  x  5°  in 
extent.  Lay  them  tangentially  on  the  globe,  and  side  by  side  over  tlie  coun- 
try to  be  mapped. 

Now  suppose,  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  each  of  these  little  planes  to  be 
transparent,  and  so  prepared  as  to  receive  a  correct  impression  of  all  the 
geographical  features  within  the  4°  x  5°  covered  by  it— somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  the  image  in  the  camera  of  the  photographer.  Further  suppose, 
that  all  these  little  transparent  planes,  after  having  received  the  impression, 
are  taken  off  the  globe  and  laid  side  by  side  on  the  drawing-board.  The 
liicory  of  the  Rectangular  Tangential  projection  may  be  understood  from 
this  illusn-aiion.    The  practical  application  of  it  maybe  learned  elsewhere. 


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